GIFT   OF 


A  STUDY  OF  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


BY 


HERSCHEL  THURMAN  MANUEL 

A.  B.  DePauw  University,  1909 
A.  M.  University  of  Chicago,  1914 


THESIS 

Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the  Requirements  for  the 
Degree  of 

DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

IN  EDUCATION 


THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

1917 


•?. 
fo 


Copyright   1919 
By  Public  School  Publishing  Co. 


PREFACE 

In  the  summer  of  1916,  the  General  Education  Board 
made  an  appropriation  for  a  study  of  gifted  children. 
The  investigation  has  been  carried  forward  under  the 
direction  of  Professor  G.  M.  Whipple  of  the  University 
of  Illinois.  During  the  present  school  year  (1916-17), 
three  persons  have  worked  on  the  problem  under 
Professor  Whipple 's  supervision:  Miss  Genevieve  L. 
Coy,  Dr.  T.  S.  Henry,  and  the  author.  Miss  Coy  has 
spent  a  large  part  of  the  school  year  in  a  study  of  gifted 
children,  and  other  children  with  whom  the  gifted  chil- 
dren might  be  compared,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  of 
the  Leal  School,  Urbana,  Illinois.  Dr.  Henry  has  inves- 
tigated the  class-room  instruction  of  gifted  children. 
The  author  undertook  an  investigation  of  specialized 
ability,  and  further  limited  his  research  to  a  study  of 
talent  in  one  direction,  viz.,  drawing.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  this  volume  to  present  an  account  of  the  research 
undertaken  by  the  author. 

For  assistance  in  this  research  I  am  indebted  to 
Professor  G.  M.  Whipple,  Professor  W.  C.  Bagley,  and 
Professor  C.  H.  Johnston  of  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion of  the  University  of  Illinois ;  to  Professor  E.  J.  Lake 
of  the  Department  of  Art  and  Design  of  the  University 
of  Illinois ;  to  my  colleagues  Miss  Genevieve  L.  Coy  and 
Dr.  T.  S.  Henry;  to  Superintendent  W.  W.  Earnest  of 
the  Champaign  Public  Schools;  to  Miss  Lottie  Switzer, 
Principal,  Miss  Mary  Hill,  Supervisor  of  Art,  and  vari- 
ous teachers  of  the  Champaign  High  School ;  to  Super- 
intendent A.  P.  Johnson  of  the  Urbana  Public  Schools ; 
to  Mr.  M.  L.  Flaningam,  Principal  of  the  Urbana  High 

in 

415593 


IV 

School ;  to  Mr.  L.  C.  Griggs,  Principal  of  the  Leal  School, 
Urbana;  to  Miss  Alice  Frazey,  Supervisor  of  Art,  Miss 
Burdelle  Ealey,  Teacher  of  Art,  and  to  various  teachers 
of  the  Urbana  Public  Schools;  to  Mr.  David  Seabury, 
Consulting  Psychologist  of  the  Culver  Military  Acad- 
emy; to  the  persons  who  have  acted  as  subjects  in  the 
tests;  and  to  many  others  who  are  not  specifically  men- 
tioned. 

Within  the  text  several  cases  of  particular  indebted- 
ness have  been  noted.  The  work  of  Miss  Coy  has  been 
especially  helpful  in  that  it  has  enabled  me  to  extend 
the  study  to  limits  which  otherwise  would  have  been 
impossible. 

To  the  General  Education  Board  I  am  indebted  for 
the  subsidy  under  which  I  have  worked. 

Most  of  all  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Whipple,  to 
whom  I  owe  the  opportunity  to  share  in  the  general 
study,  who  suggested  to  me  the  problem  of  specialized 
ability,  whose  suggestions  and  criticisms  have  been  most 
valuable  throughout  the  investigation,  and  whose  kind- 
nesses have  been  many  quite  apart  from  our  academic 
relations. 

To  all  who  have  in  any  way  assisted  in  carrying 
forward  the  study  I  wish  to  express  my  most  hearty 
thanks. 

HERSCHEL  T.  MANUEL. 

The  University  of  Illinois,  May  14,  1917. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 
I.     Introduction:     General  Statement  of  Problem,  Method 

and  Results 1 

II.  Historical  Statement  6 

III.  Test  Groups  and  Sources  of  Data 11 

IV.  Description  of  Tests 17 

V.  Results  of  Tests 49 

VI.     Profiles  and  Personal  Data 77 

VII.     Tlie  Psychophysical  Characteristics  of  Persons  Talented 

in  Drawing   110 

VIII.     The    Test    Method    and    the    Diagnosis    of    Talent    in 

Drawing 134 

IX.     Summary  of  Conclusions 141 

X.     Bibliography 146 


A  STUDY  OF  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION:     GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF 
PROBLEM,  METHOD,  AND  RESULTS 

The  Problem 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  volume  to  report  the  results 
of  a  study  of  talent  in  drawing.  If  it  may  not  seem  too 
abrupt,  it  will  give  point  to  the  presentation  to  state  in 
the  very  beginning  the  problem  around  which  the  re- 
search has  centered.  This  problem  is  twofold: 

(1)  What    are    the    essential    psychophysical 
characteristics  of  persons  talented  in  drawing  ? 

(2)  How  may  the  test  method  be  used  in  the 
diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing  ? 

The  Method 

The  method  employed  is  suggested  by  the  statement 
of  the  problem.  A  number  of  individuals  were  selected 
for  their  recognized  talent  in  drawing.  To  these  persons 
mental  and  physical  tests  were  applied,  and  other  in- 
formation of  a  non-experimental  character  (particularly 
biographical)  was  gathered  from  different  sources.  In 
the  following  pages  this  material  has  been  brought  to- 
gether and  its  bearing  upon  the  problem  stated  has  been 
pointed  out. 

General  and  Special  Ability 

As  stated  in  the  Preface,  this  investigation  forms  a 
part  of  an  extensive  study  of  the  gifted  child.  In  a 


2  T^/SNT  IN  DRAWING 

consideration  of  superior  endowment  one  may  dis- 
tinguish a  priori  two  general  types.  The  first  is  that  of 
high  general  ability.  The  child  stands  above  the  aver- 
age of  the  group  in  all  of  his  school  work.  In  tests  of 
general  intelligence  he  ranks  above  age.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  those  who  appear  to  have  abilities  more 
or  less  specialized.  By  endowment  or  by  training  they 
are  so  equipped  as  to  take  special  interest  in,  and  to 
succeed  extraordinarily  well  with,  some  one  activity. 
Perhaps  in  comparison  with  their  fellows  they  are  partic- 
ularly good  in  language,  in  music,  in  constructive  work, 
or  in  drawing.  They  may  or  may  not  belong  to  the 
class  described  as  having  high  general  ability,  but  for 
doing  the  particular  thing  under  discussion  they  do  show 
special  aptitude. 

This  specialized  ability  we  shall  call  "talent."  And 
it  is  to  this  part  of  the  general  problem  of  the  gifted 
child  that  the  attention  of  the  author  has  been  directed. 
After  some  preliminary  survey  it  was  decided  that  it 
would  be  best,  in  consideration  of  the  time  which  could 
be  devoted  to  the  unit  of  research  then  projected,  to 
limit  the  study  to  investigation  of  one  particular  form  of 
talent.  Drawing  was  chosen  as  the  activity  of  greatest 
promise  for  the  immediate  purpose. 

The  Test  Method 

The  experimental  part  of  the  study  of  talent  in  draw- 
ing has  been  carried  forward  by  the  test  method.  It 
will  be  serviceable  then  to  recall  the  characteristics  of 
this  method.  Any  test  in  which  the  results  are  influ- 
enced by  the  mental  activity  of  the  subject  may  properly 
be  called  a  mental  test.  Both  mental  and  physical  ac- 
tivities are,  of  course,  involved,  but  they  are  so  inter- 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  3 

related  as  to  make  it  unprofitable  for  our  purpose  to 
try  to  disentangle  them.  Most  of  the  tests  which  we 
have  used  may  be  called  " mental' '  tests  in  this  sense. 
It  will  be  sufficient  then  to  discuss  the  characteristics  of 
the  mental  test  or,  as  it  might  also  be  called,  the  psycho- 
logical test. 

The  test  (Prufungsexperiment),  as  defined  by  Stern,1 
is  an  experiment  designed  in  a  given  case  to  reveal  "the 
individual  psychical  constitution  of  a  personality  or  a 
single  psychical  attribute  of  it."  The  same  author 
points  out  two  logical  presuppositions  of  the  test:  (1) 
it  must  really  furnish  an  indication  of  the  quality  to  be 
demonstrated;  (2)  it  must  assign  the  one  tested  in  rela- 
tion to  this  quality  to  a  definite  place  in  the  series  of 
possible  results.  A  very  good  discussion  in  English  of 
the  nature  and  purpose  of  mental  tests  is  given  by 
Whipple.2  Within  itself  the  test  is  diagnostic  rather 
than  theoretical.  Its  purpose  is  "to  analyze,  measure 
and  rank  the  status  or  the  efficiency  of  traits  and  capac- 
ities in  the  individual  under  examination. "  Its  value 
as  an  instrument  of  research  lies  in  the  use  which  may 
be  made  of  these  measures,  analyses,  and  ranks.  It  is  a 
kind  of  standardized  experiment,  in  which  the  meaning 
of  the  performance  is  determined  by  previous  research 
or  else  by  comparison  with  other  results. 

A  Study  of  Individuals 

The  research  here  reported  has  been  essentially  a 
study  of  individuals  by  the  test  method.  Tests  and 
standard  performances  for  the  individuals  studied  are 


1Stern,  W.,  Die  differentielle  Psychologic*     Leipzig,  1911,  p.  87. 
2Whipple,   G.   M.,   Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.     Baltimore, 
1914,   p.    1-4. 


4  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

logically  presupposed.  It  has  not  been  the  primary 
purpose  either  to  develop  new  tests  or  to  standardize 
old  ones.  Such  a  purpose  would  have  carried  the  study 
to  impossible  limits.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the 
tests  at  hand  seemed  insufficient  for  our  purpose,  and, 
for  some  that  were  available,  comparable  results  were 
lacking.  Practically,  therefore,  we  have  been  compelled 
to  do  a  little  work  in  both  developing  and  standardizing. 
Yet  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  have  entered  these 
fields  only  under  necessity  in  an  attempt  partially  to 
overcome  the  handicap  of  a  rapidly  developing  but  still 
incomplete  science. 
* 

Justification  of  the  Study 

No  excuse  is  needed  for  any  type  of  scientific  research. 
If,  however,  the  reader  desires  some  reference  to  the 
literature  for  a  justification  of  the  thing  which  we  have 
attempted,  we  may  say  that  we  have  undertaken  the  first 
named  of  the  tasks  mentioned  by  Stern  in  the  quotation 
below  :3 

"It  will  be  necessary  both  to  'psychograph'  exceptionally  gifted  indi- 
viduals as  completely  as  possible  and  to  follow  their  subsequent  mental 
development,  and  also  to  work  out  types  and  correlations  by  the  com- 
parison of  numerous  individuals." 

Or,  we  may  add  the  statement  of  Dr.  Kerschensteiner 
— a  statement  which  concerns  drawing  talent  more  spe- 
cifically :4 

"The  productions  of  both  the  Munich  boys  stand  on  the  same  level 
with  the  productions  of  the  two  boys  [afterwards  the  German  painters, 
Albrecht  Diirer  and  Hans  Thomas]  who  once  made  the  title-pages  [refer- 
ring to  reproductions  of  early  drawings  of  these  painters  which  Dr. 
Kerschensteiner  has  made  on  the  title-pages  of  his  book].  Will  they 
develop  also  as  these?  Who  can  say?  We  have  so  far  no  objective, 

3Stern,  W.,  The  Supernormal  Child.  Journal  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology, 2:  1911,  187-188. 

4Kerschensteiner,  Georg.  Die  Entwicklung  der  zeichnerischen 
Begabung.  Munich,  1905.  Preface,  xi  f. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  5 

certain  measure  for  true  talent,  whether  graphic,  musical,  or  linguistic; 
we  have  also  no  sure  measure  for  great  ability  in  abstraction,  in  scientific 
or  aesthetic  imagination,  in  organization,  in  observation,  or  in  the  technical 
arts.  Usually  we  recognize  these  qualities  first,  when  they  are  in  full 
bloom,  but  not  in  the  bud.  It  will  be  an  uncommonly  great,  but  also  a 
very  difficult  task  of  experimental  pedagogy,  to  find  the  key  for  the  judg- 
ment of  these  different  talents." 

Or,  perhaps  the  reader  will  find  concrete  justification 
for  such  a  study  in  the  following  paraphrase  of  the  ex- 
perience of  one  of  our  own  subjects : 

"I  have  always  liked  to  draw,  but  in  my  childhood  1  received  very 
little  encouragement.  No  one  thought  that  I  could  do  anything.  Even 
my  mother,  though  she  had  herself  received  training  in  art,  did  not  encour- 
age me.  She  did  not  think  that  I  could  ever  do  much  with  drawing,  and 
she  gave  very  little  attention  to  the  drawings  which  I  used  to  take  to  her. 
Both  the  common  school  and  the  high  school  offered  very  little  opportunity 
for  development  in  this  line,  in  which  I  dreamed  that  some  day  I  might 
accomplish  something.  Before  entering  the  university  I  had  no  real  lessons 
in  drawing  except  perhaps  a  few  that  might  be  so  designated  in  the  com- 
mon schools.  Yet  through  these  years  I  have  continued  to  cherish  my 
dream.  I  remember  that  I  was  fascinated  by  the  drawings  of  birds  and 
the  like  which  one  of  my  teachers  in  the  country  school  used  to  make 
after  the  fashion  of  the  old  penmen.  I  wish  that  T  could  go  out  to  teach 
art  to  children  so  that  any  one  who  has  the  desire  may  have  the  oppor- 
tunity also." 

Results 

The  investigation  has  revealed  great  individual  dif- 
ferences in  the  mental  and  physical  characteristics  of 
persons  who  are  talented  in  drawing.  These  differences 
are  discussed  in  some  detail  in  Chapter  VII.  We  have 
been  able  to  make  recommendations  concerning  the  types 
of  tests  which  should  be  used  in  a  diagnosis  of  drawing 
talent,  and  to  point  out  certain  specific  problems  for 
further  investigation.  The  discussion  of  tests  in  their 
relation  to  talent  in  drawing  is  presented  in  Chapter 
VIII. 


CHAPTER  II 
HISTOKICAL  STATEMENT 

Development  of  the  Test  Method 

Various  types  of  scientific  research  are  interdepend- 
ent. One  type  of  study  goes  forward  a  little  while,  and 
then  another  undertakes  to  utilize  the  results  of  the 
former  while  they  are  yet  in  the  making.  The  two 
studies  advance  together  and  each  supports  the  other. 
No  field  is  completely  developed  before  workers  in  an- 
other take  advantage  of  the  contribution  already  made. 

Such  a  situation  is  reflected  in  the  method  of  this 
study.  Less  than  a  half  century  ago  the  first  psycho- 
logical laboratory  was  established.  Since  that  time,  to 
be  sure,  rapid  strides  have  been  taken,  but  experimental 
psychology  is  still  very  new.  Its  problems  and  methods, 
not  to  mention  theories  and  results,  are  yet  matters  of 
discussion  and  dispute.  Psychology,  however,  had 
scarcely  assumed  the  experimental  attitude,  when  the 
psychological  experiment  began  to  be  standardized  into 
so-called  tests.  According  to  Stern,1  the  expression 
"mental  tests"  was  first  used  by  Cattell  in  1890.  The 
phrase  was  used  in  an  article  which  appears  in  Mind  on 
"Mental  Tests  and  Measurements."  The  first  draft  of 
the  best-known  and  the  most  highly  developed  series  of 
tests,  the  Binet-Simon  tests  for  general  intelligence,  was 
published  as  recently  as  1905.  The  development  in  the 
field  of  tests  was  so  rapid  as  to  justify  the  publication 
in  1910  of  Whipple's  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical 


1Stern,  W.,  Die  differentielle  Psychologic,  1911.  p.  89. 
6 


HISTORICAL  STATEMENT  7 

Tests.2  This  important  work  was  expanded  into  two 
volumes  in  1914  and  1915,  and  the  literature  is  growing 
apace. 

Naturally,  in  so  new  and  so  difficult  a  field  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  confusion  and  uncertainty.  Many  of  the 
conclusions  are  confessedly  tentative.  The  situation  is 
well  put  by  Whipple  :3 

"There  is,  at  the  present  time,  scarcely  a  single  mental  test  that  can 
be  applied  unequivocally  as  a  psychical  measuring-rod.  The  fact  is  we 
have  not  agreed  upon  methods  of  procedure ;  we  too  often  do  not  know 
what  we  are  measuring ;  and  we  too  seldom  realize  ithe  astounding  com- 
plexity, variety  and  delicacy  of  form  of  our  psychical  nature." 

It  is  to  this  newest  phase  of  the  development  of  ex- 
perimental methods  in  psychological  study  that  this  in- 
vestigation belongs.  Despite  the  uncertainties  involved, 
science  must  use  even  the  imperfectly  developed  instru- 
ments which  it  has.  In  so  doing,  not  only  will  it  advance 
in  the  immediate  direction  of  the  given  research,  but  it 
will  at  the  same  time  be  perfecting  its  instruments. 

Relation  to  Education 

The  preceding  paragraphs  have  set  forth  the  relation 
of  this  study  to  psychology.  Just  as  properly  or  per- 
haps even  more  so,  the  study  may  be  said  to  belong  to  the 
field  of  experimental  education.  We  are  investigating 
talent  in  a  school  activity.  We  are  using  a  method 
which  does  not  presuppose  highly  trained  observers, 
such  as  are  employed  on  problems  of  a  more  purely 
psychological  nature.  We  desire  the  results  for  immed- 
iate application  to  educational  problems. 

For  our  present  purpose  there  is  no  need,  of  course, 
to  draw  a  line  between  what  is  psychological  and  what 


*Whipple,  G-.  M.,  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  1910;  Revised 
Edition,  1914-15. 

3Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual,  Second  Edition,  1914,  pp.  3f. 


8  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

is  educational.  And  we  may  even  recall  the  large  in- 
debtedness which  experimental  education  has  to  the  psy- 
chological laboratory.  Cubberly  has  recently  stated4 
that  the  "experimental  investigation  of  educational 
problems  had  its  origin,  in  large  measure,  among  workers 
in  psychological  laboratories.'7 

Related  Investigations 

There  have  been  many  studies  of  drawing,  but  none 
of  these,  so  far  as  the  author  is  aware,  corresponds 
closely  in  method  and  scope  to  the  one  which  is  here 
reported.  Ayer  has  given  us  recently5  a  comprehensive 
summary  of  earlier  investigations  of  drawing  and  has 
himself  contributed  to  the  general  store.  Since  this 
summary  is  readily  accessible,  a  repetition  of  it  here 
would  be  quite  superfluous.  We  shall,  therefore,  men- 
tion in  this  connection  only  three  of  the  studies  which 
seem  to  be  most  closely  related  to  the  present  one.  Other 
studies  will  be  mentioned  only  as  occasion  arises  for 
such  reference  in  the  later  chapters.  Sufficient  informa- 
tion for  the  interpretation  of  references  has  been  given, 
it  is  hoped,  in  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 
The  detailed  results  of  different  studies  need  be  given 
only  so  far  as  they  relate  to  the  questions  raised  in  this 
investigation,  and  they  may  best  be  presented  in  con- 
nection with  the  discussion  of  these  topics. 

The  investigation,  perhaps,  most  closely  resembling 
this  one  was  made  by  Binet.6  Tade  Styka  was  a  young 
painter  who  came  under  Binet 's  observation.  Binet  was 


4Cubberley,  Ellwood  P.,  In  the  Editor's  Introduction  to  Freeman,  F. 
N.f  Experimental  Education,  1916. 

5Ayer,  F.   C.,   The  Psychology  of  Drawing.     Baltimore,    1916. 

6Binet,  A.,  La  psychologic  artistique  de  Tade  Styka.  L'Annee  psy- 
chologique,  15:  1908  (1909)  315-356. 


HISTORICAL  STATEMENT  9 

"curious  to  know  whether  an  intelligence  so  young, 
which  practiced  already  a  technique  so  learned,  pro- 
ceeded by  reason  or  by  instinct. "  Accordingly,  with 
the  cooperation  of  Styka  himself  and  of  Styka's  father, 
who  also  was  a  painter,  he  made  a  rather  extensive  in- 
vestigation of  the  talent  and  mental  characteristics  of 
the  young  man.  He  observed  the  painter  at  work,  gave 
him  various  mental  tests,  questioned  him  concerning  his 
technique  and  interest,  and  brought  together  facts  of  a 
biographical  character.  Binet  was  able  then  to  describe 
fairly  well  the  mental  characteristics  of  the  painter  and 
the  nature  of  his  talent. 

Kik7  made  a  study  of  individuals  who  were  specially 
talented  in  drawing.  It  appears,  however,  that  his  data 
were  largely  non-experimental.  He  studied  the  draw- 
ings made  by  children  of  special  talent,  and  in  some 
cases  observed  the  children  in  their  drawing.  In  addi- 
tion, he  obtained  supplemental  information  which  may 
be  classed  as  personal  and  biographical.  Thirteen  cases 
of  special  talent  are  included  in  his  study.  He  discusses 
the  nature  of  special  talent,  various  types  of  drawing 
ability,  the  influence  of  heredity  and  of  surroundings, 
and  the  relation  of  drawing  and  intelligence. 

Kerschensteiner  's8  study  was  a  most  elaborate  one, 
but  also  non-experimental  except  that  the  drawings  were 
collected  under  controlled  conditions,  and  in  some  cases 
the  investigator  himself  witnessed  the  drawing.  Thous- 
ands of  drawings  were  collected  under  his  direction  from 
the  school  children  of  Munich,  and  many  children  who 
exhibited  special  talent  demonstrated  the  fact  by  draw- 


7Kik,  C.,  Die  ubernormale  Zeichnenbegabung  bei  Kindern.  Zeitschrift 
fiir  angewandte  Psychologic,  2:  1908,  92-149. 

8Kerschensteiner,  G.,  Die  Entwicklung  der  zeichnerischen  Begabung, 
1905. 


10  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

ing  in  his  presence.  An  exhaustive  study  of  the  draw- 
ings themselves  was  supplemented  by  consideration  of 
the  drawers  in  relation  to  their  age,  school  grade,  sex, 
general  school  success,  the  professions  of  their  parents, 
whether  they  drew  at  home,  and  whether  they  possessed 
a  picture  book.  He  was  able  to  draw  conclusions  as  to 
the  typical  stages  in  the  development  of  children's 
drawings,  the  relation  of  drawing  to  general  intelligence, 
and  various  other  important  questions  in  the  psychology 
and  pedagogy  of  drawing.  The  investigation  was  of 
great  practical  benefit  to  the  drawing  instruction  of  the 
City  of  Munich. 


CHAPTER  III 
TEST  GROUPS  AND  SOURCES  OF  DATA 

General  Survey 

Tests  and  supplemental  information  on  19  subjects 
chosen  for  their  recognized  talent  in  drawing  are  re- 
ported in  this  study.  In  point  of  school  advancement, 
the  subjects  fall  naturally  into  three  groups :  college  or 
university  students  (5),  secondary-school  (high-school 
or  academy)  students  (8),  and  elementary  pupils  (6). 
Accordingly,  each  subject  will  be  designated  by  a  num- 
ber to  which  is  prefixed  the  letter  C,  S,  or  E.  The  letter 
will  serve  to  indicate  the  one  of  the  above  groups,  in 
the  order  named,  to  which  the  subject  belongs. 

Eight  of  the  subjects  are  boys  or  men  and  eleven  are 
girls  or  women.  In  order  to  indicate  differences  in  sex, 
the  numbers  which  indicate  the  male  subjects  will  be 
italicized. 

The  above  classification  is  obviously  in  terms  of 
school  status,  but  on  account  of  differences  in  the  actual 
experimentation,  it  will  be  found  desirable,  while  re- 
taining the  designations  C,  S,  and  E,  to  group  the  sub- 
jects into  four  experimental  groups  as  follows : 

(1)  the  academy  group,  consisting  of  subjects  $7  and  S8 ; 

(2)  the  laboratory  group,   consisting  of  subjects  SI,  S2,   S3,  S4,  S5, 
S6,  04,  and  C5 ; 

(3)  the  miscellaneous  group,  consisting  of  subjects  01.  C2,  and  (73; 

(4)  the  elementary  group,  consisting  of  subjects  El,  E2,  E3,  E4,  E5, 
and  E6. 

The  Academy  Group 

In  the  fall  of  1916  an  invitation  was  extended  to 
Professor  G.  M.  Whipple  to  make  a  series  of  psycholog- 

11 


12  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

ical  tests  upon  a  number  of  cadets  in  the  Culver  Military 
Academy  at  Culver,  Indiana.  The  Academy  is  a  high- 
grade  institution  of  high-school  rank.  The  invitation 
was  accepted  and  the  tests  were  given  on  November  16, 
17,  and  18.  Professor  Whipple  was  assisted  in  the  test- 
ing by  Miss  Genevieve  L.  Coy,  Dr.  T.  S.  Henry,  and  the 
author.  Twenty-two  tests  of  varied  character,  from 
which  the  ones  to  be  reported  here  are  selected,  were 
given.  Thirty-two  cadets  formed  the  test  group,  and 
each  cadet  (with  negligible  exceptions)  submitted  to 
every  test.  The  group  had  been  selected  by  the  Acad- 
emy officers  to  include  young  men  of  different  abilities, 
high,  low,  and  average.  Classmen  from  each  year  of 
work  given  in  the  Academy  were  included.  The  ages  of 
the  cadets  ranged  from  14  years,  nine  months,  to  21 
years. 

It  was  a  part  of  the  task  of  the  author  to  hold  a  per- 
sonal interview  with  each  cadet  tested.  From  these  in- 
terviews it  appeared  that  two  of  the  cadets  (our  87  and 
S8)  were  probably  talented  in  drawing.  Additional 
evidence  has  since  been  added  by  statements  from  Mr. 
David  Seabury,  Consulting  Psychologist  of  the  Academy, 
and  from  the  fathers  of  the  two  cadets.  Unfortunately, 
it  has  not  been  possible  to  follow  up  the  study  by  a 
second  interview  with  the  cadets  themselves  and  by  se- 
curing from  them  concrete  evidences  of  their  ability. 
The  information  which  we  have,  however,  seems  suffi- 
cient to  merit  presentation  in  the  chapters  that  follow. 

The  Laboratory  Group 

The  eight  members  of  the  laboratory  group  were 
chosen  for  a  detailed  study.  An  extended  list  of  tests 
was  applied  to  these  persons  by  the  author  himself. 


TEST  GROUPS  AND  SOURCES  OF  DATA  13 

These  data  were  supplemented  by  means  of  interviews 
with  the  subjects  and  with  others  who  knew  of  their 
work. 

At  the  time  of  selection  SI,  S2,  S3,  84,  S5,  and  S6 
were  students  in  the  Champaign  or  Urbana  High  School. 
They  were  selected  on  the  recommendations  of  the  super- 
visors of  art  instruction,  and  after  consultation  with  the 
principals  of  the  two  high  schools.  Each  was  recom- 
mended by  the  supervisor  in  charge  as  among  the  most 
gifted  in  drawing  of  the  then  high-school  students,  who 
were  or  had  been,  under  her  instruction. 

C4  and  C5  were  at  the  time  of  selection  students  in 
the  Department  of  Art  and  Design  of  the  University  of 
Illinois.  They  were  recommended  by  the  Acting  Head 
of  the  Department  as  "advanced  students  who  have 
reached  a  degree  of  ability  in  technique  and  show  orig- 
inality." C5  was  recommended  also  by  the  supervisor 
of  art  instruction  in  the  high  school  from  which  she 
came  to  the  University. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  tests  given  to  S2  one 
evening  at  his  home,  all  of  the  tests  were  applied  in  the 
educational  laboratory  of  the  University.  The  subjects 
apparently  took  a  real  interest  in  the  work  and  applied 
themselves  faithfully.  As  an  added  incentive,  and 
since  it  was  realized  that  the  test  series  would  be  a  long 
one,  each  of  the  subjects  was  paid  for  his  time.  It  was 
possible  to  apply  a  few  of  the  tests  as  group  tests,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  testing  was  done  individually, 
and  at  no  time  was  a  test  applied  to  the  entire  group  at 
once.  The  testing  began  on  December  7th,  1916,  and 
ended  on  March  27th,  1917.  The  time  required  for  each 
subject  ranged  from  12  to  16  hours.  It  was  necessary 
to  make  individual  appointments  which  were  adjusted 


14  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

to  the  programs  both  of  the  subjects  and  of  the  experi- 
menter; consequently,  the  time  could  not  be  controlled 
as  completely  as  strict  laboratory  procedure  would  en- 
join. The  after-school  period  of  the  afternoon  was  a 
favorite  time  for  the  high-school  students,  though  in 
some  instances  evening  appointments  were  made,  and  a 
few  morning  periods  were  utilized.  In  the  case  of  the 
university  students  both  morning  and  afternoon  appoint- 
ments were  made.  The  order  of  the  tests  was  likewise 
varied  somewhat  with  the  different  subjects;  early  ex- 
perience indicated  that  it  would  be  practically  impossible 
to  keep  the  order  constant,  and  varying  conditions  at 
times  would  have  made  it  unwise  to  attempt  it. 

The  Miscellaneous  Group 

During  the  conduct  of  the  investigation  three  uni- 
versity students  (our  Cl,  C2,  and  C3)  came  to  the  at- 
tention of  the  author  as  persons  who  probably  had  some 
talent  for  drawing.  A  limited  amount  of  work  has  been 
done  by  the  author  with  these  people,  and  results  of 
certain  other  tests  applied  in  the  educational  laboratory 
by  others  have  been  available.  The  estimate  of  their 
drawing  talent  must  rest  upon  facts  gained  from  per- 
sonal interviews  and  from  the  tests  given,  except  that  in 
the  case  of  C39  who  has  been  a  student  in  the  Department 
of  Art  and  Design,  we  have  been  able  to  get  additional 
information  from  the  acting  head  of  this  department. 

The  Elementary  Group 

In  advance  of  experiment  we  dare  not  assume  that 
children  will  respond  to  given  tests  in  the  same  manner 
as  do  adults.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  in  trying  out  a 


TEST  GROUPS  AND  SOURCES  OF  DATA  15 

method  or  in  studying  a  group  selected  for  a  particular 
ability,  to  extend  the  study  to  persons  of  various  typical 
ages.  In  accordance  with  this  policy  six  pupils  were 
chosen  for  our  study  from  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  of 
the  Leal  School,  Urbana.  They  were  selected  on  the 
recommendation  of  their  teacher  of  drawing,  Miss  Bur- 
delle  Ealey,  who  estimated  their  drawing  talent  as 
among  the  highest  exhibited  in  these  grades  of  this 
school. 

As  stated  in  the  Preface,  Miss  Coy  has  spent  a  large 
part  of  the  school  year  in  research  in  these  grades. 
This  fact  has  made  possible  a  very  much  more  compre- 
hensive study  of  these  pupils  than  would  have  otherwise 
been  possible,  for  the  results  of  her  work  have  been 
freely  available  and  freely  used.  From  this  material 
we  have  received  a  wealth  of  data  on  the  pupils  in  these 
grades. 

Additional  data  have  been  secured  from  the  test 
group  in  a  series  of  tests  in  the  educational  laboratory 
of  the  University.1  For  the  purpose  of  taking  these 
tests,  each  of  the  six  pupils  came  to  the  laboratory  on 
three  or  four  of  the  Saturday  mornings  from  March  3 
to  March  24,  1917.  In  addition,  the  author  did  some 
testing  at  the  Leal  School. 

Supplemental  Information 

In  addition  to  the  results  of  the  tests,  it  has  been 
possible  to  collect  a  mass  of  supplementary  information 
which  may  be  roughly  characterized  as  biographical. 
This  information,  secured  in  personal  interviews  with 


aln  securing  these  results  the  author  has  been  ably  assisted  by  Miss 
Frances  Mapel,  Miss  Dora  Keen,  Miss  Margaret  Doherty,  Miss  Helen 
Davis,  and  Miss  Florence  Boehmer,  all  of  whom  are  students  in  Education. 


16  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

the  subjects  and  from  various  persons  who  knew  of  their 
work,  has  been  of  great  value  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  experimental  results.  The  contributions  of  the  su- 
pervisors of  drawing  in  the  high  schools,  the  teacher  of 
drawing  in  the  grade  school,  and  the  Head  of  the  De- 
partment of  Art  and  Design  in  the  University  have  been, 
particularly  valuable. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS 

Introductory 

In  a  study  of  this  kind,  it  would  be  desirable,  if  it 
were  at  all  possible  to  extend  the  tests  until  we  could 
make  a  complete  determination  of  the  personality.1 
This  would  require,  however,  an  infinite  number  and 
variety  of  tests  and  sufficient  data  for  the  interpretation 
of  the  results  of  each  test.  Both  the  tests  and  the  data 
are  lacking.  Moreover,  it  would  require  a  vast  amount 
of  time  to  apply  even  the  tests  which  are  available.  A 
choice  of  tests  must,  therefore,  be  made.  In  the  acad- 
emy group,  the  choice  of  tests  was  made  for  purposes 
other  than  those  of  this  investigation,  but  we  have  chosen 
from  those  given  a  number  that  pertain  to  our  problem. 
The  tests  given  to  the  laboratory  group  were  chosen  for 
this  investigation.  In  the  other  groups  we  have  both 
given  tests  for  the  purpose  in  hand  and  selected  from 
those  given  by  others.  Many  mental  and  physical  ca- 
pacities condition  the  performances  in  these  tests. 

One  of  the  difficulties  of  individual  psychology  is 
the  variability  of  performance  in  a  given  test  as  affected 
by  factors  like  fatigue,  state  of  attention,  effort,  and 
general  physical  condition.  We  can  not  be  sure  that 
the  results  of  a  single  test  are  a  typical  representative 
of  the  ability  which  we  have  tried  to  measure.  Conse- 
quently, it  is  desirable  to  make  more  than  one  measure- 
ment. In  some  cases,  the  same  test  may  be  repeated. 


*Cf.  Claparede,   Ed.   Profils  psychologiques.     Archives  de  Psychologic, 
16:    1916,   70. 

17 


18  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

In  this  study,  for  example,  two  tests  of  motor  capacity 
(tapping  and  steadiness)  were  given  twice  to  most  of  the 
subjects  to  whom  they  were  given  at  all.  But  a  repe- 
tition of  some  tests  makes  them  primarily  tests  of  re- 
tention. Hence  there  arises  the  need  of  different  tests 
for  measuring  the  same  ability.  It  would  be  a  further 
advantage,  if  the  different  tests  were  equivalent,  in  the 
sense  that  a  given  score  in  one  test  would  represent  the 
same  performance  as  that  score  in  the  other  test. 
Equivalent  tests,  however,  are  not  generally  available. 
We  must  rather  rely  upon  similar  tests,  that  is,  tests  in 
which  the  performance  is  dependent  primarily  upon  the 
same  abilities,  but  in  which  the  units  are  not  inter- 
changeable. 

Before  the  presentation  of  the  results,  a  brief  dis- 
cussion of  the  several  tests  used  will  be  in  order.  A 
statement  of  the  particular  tests  taken  by  each  subject 
may  be  deferred.  It  will  be  convenient  to  describe  the 
tests  under  certain  headings.  There  will  probably  be  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  they  should  be 
grouped  in  the  way  which  we  have  chosen.  We  have  no 
disposition  to  urge  that  our  own  grouping  is  the  best 
one.  As  a  matter  of  fact  a  single  test  brings  into  opera- 
tion a  number  of  mental  processes  and  depends  upon 
various  capacities ;  so  that  with  perfect  propriety  the 
test  may  be  placed  under  different  headings,  if  it  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  characterization  implied  is  but 
a  partial  one. 

7.     Tests  of  General  Intelligence 

1.  Tlie  Binet-Simon  Tests.  The  Stanford  Revision 
of  the  Binet-Simon  tests  for  general  intelligence  was 
used.  The  method  of  giving  and  scoring  these  tests  is 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  19 

fully  described  by  Terman.2  In  representing  the  total 
result  of  the  tests  we  have  used  the  "intelligence  quo- 
tient "  (I.  Q.)  as  explained  by  this  author.  The  intelli- 
gence quotient  may  be  described  as  100  times  the  ratio 
obtained  by  dividing  the  mental  age  by  the  chronological 
age.  Eeference  will  be  made  to  the  following  separate 
tests  of  the  series : 

(a)  Memory  for  Digits.     This  is  a  test  of  immediate 
memory  for  digits  dictated  by  the  experimenter  at  the 
rate  of  about  one  a  second.     After  the  series  has  been 
dictated,  the  subject  attempts  to  repeat  the  numbers 
either  (1)  in  the  same  or  (2)  in  the  reverse  order,  as 
may  be  directed.  - 

(b)  Designs.     In  the  designs  test  two  simple  draw- 
ings are  exposed  simultaneously  for  a  period  of  ten 
seconds,  after  which  the  subject  attempts  to  reproduce 
them.     The  test  occurs  in  the  tenth-year  group.     One 
design  correct  and  one  "half7  correct  are  required  for 
passing. 

(c)  Sixty  Words.     In  this  test  the  task  is  the  nam- 
ing of  as  many  words  as  possible  within  a  period  of  three 
minutes.     At  least  sixty  words  must  be  named  in  order 
to  pass.     It  is  listed  in  the  tenth-year  group. 

(d)  The  Clock  Test.     The  clock  test  is  placed  in 
Year  14.     The  subject  is  expected  to  imagine  the  posi- 
tions of  the  hands  of  a  clock  at  a  particular  time,  and 
to  state  what  time  it  would  be  if  the  hands  were  to  ex- 
change positions.     Three  such  problems  are  given,  but 
only  two  correct  answers  are  required  for  passing. 

(e)  Vocabulary.     The  vocabulary  test  comes  in  year 
8  and  from  10  up.     It  is  designed  to  measure  the  extent 
of  one's  vocabulary.     A  list  of  100  words  of  progress- 


n,   L.  M.,   The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  1916. 


20  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

ively  increasing  difficulty  is  offered  for  definition.  In 
the  Stanford  procedure  the  responses  are  given  orally, 
but,  in  our  own  work  with  some  adults,  we  asked  the 
subjects  first  to  write  the  definitions.  Doubtful  places 
were  afterward  checked  over  in  conference  with  the 
subject. 

(f)  Interpretation  of  Fables.     The  test  requiring 
interpretation  of  fables  is  listed  in  both  the  12th  and 
the  16th  years.     The  subject  must  interpret  the  situation 
presented  in  a  fable  and  generalize  this  situation  in  an 
expression  of  the  "  lesson "  which  it  is  intended  to  teach. 
Five  fables  are  read  by  the  experimenter.     A  score  of  2 
is  allowed  for  every  correct  response  and  1  for  every 
response  partially  correct.     Scores  of  4  and  8,  respec- 
tively,  are   required  for  passing.     No   time   record  is 
taken.     Tests   of   this   type   are  further  discussed  by 
Whipple.3 

(g)  Code.     The  code  test,  occurring  in  age  16,  is 
essentially  a  form  of  substitution  test.     The  symbols  for 
the  letters  are  shown  to  the  subject  and  explained  to 
him  in  some  detail.     He  is  informed  that  he  will  be 
asked  to  write  something  in  the  code.     After  the  code 
has  been  removed  from  sight,  the  words  Come  quickly 
are  given,  and  the  time  required  for  writing  them  is  re- 
corded.    The  test  is  passed  if  the  time  has  not  exceeded 
six  minutes  and  if  not  more  than  two  errors  have  been 
made.     In  our  own  work  it  seemed  desirable  to  have  a 
finer  method  of  scoring  than  that  used  by  Terman.     In 
fact  we  have  used  two  methods,  which  are  indicated 
below.     We  should  have  used  the  second  of  these  in  all 
of  the  test  groups,  except  for  the  fact  that  the  time  re- 
quired for  S8  was  not  recorded  accurately. 


8Whipple's  Manual,  pp.   666ff. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  21 

Method  (1).  In  the  first  method  of  scoring,  100 
points  were  allowed  for  an  errorless  performance.  Then 
10  points  were  deducted  for  each  error  and  for  each  100 
seconds  (or  part  thereof)  in  excess  of  200  seconds  re- 
quired for  completion  of  the  test.  This  method  is  used 
in  the  scores  of  the  academy  group. 

Method  (2).  The  score  used  in  the  other  groups 
consisted  of  the  number  of  seconds  required  for  com- 
pleting the  test,  divided  by  the  number  of  correctly 
coded  letters.  In  other  words,  the  score  is  the  number 
of  seconds  per  correct  letter. 

The  code  test  requires  reproduction  of  visual  forms 
and  would  seem  to  be  of  special  interest  with  reference 
to  ability  in  drawing.  One  would  think  that  a  good 
memory  for  visual  forms  would  be  an  asset  both  in  this 
test  and  in  drawing.  Of  course,  we  can  not  assume  that 
visual  imagery  is  required  for  a  good  record  in  the  test.4  . 
Healy  and  Fernald,5  who  have  described  the  test,  char- 
acterize it  as  one  requiring  "close  attention  and  stead- 
iness of  purpose. ' ' 

(h)  Problem  of  tlie  Inclosed  Boxes.  The  subject 
is  asked  to  state  the  number  of  boxes  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing combinations:  (1)  one  large  box  containing  2 
smaller  boxes,  each  of  which  contains  1  tiny  box;  (2) 
one  large  box,  2  smaller,  2  tiny;  (3)  one  large  box,  3 
smaller,  3  tiny;  (4)  one  large  box,  4  smaller,  4  tiny. 
The  test  belongs  to  the  16-year  (average-adult)  series. 
Three  correct  answers  are  required  for  passing.  The 
test  has  a  special  interest  in  this  study  because  the  task 
is  to  deal  with  a  situation  which  lends  itself  to  visual 
representation. 


4Cf.  Terman,  op.  tit.,  p.  331. 

BHealy  and  Fernald.     Tests  for  Practical  Mental  Classification.     Psy- 
chological Review  Monographs,  13:   1911,  No.  2. 


22  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

(i)  Paper  Cutting.  The  paper-cutting  test  is  given 
in  the  superior-adult  series.  The  task  requires  imag- 
ination of  a  visual  situation.  A  blank  paper  is  folded 
in  the  middle  parallel  to  an  edge  and  then  again  at 
right  angles  to  this  fold.  The  experimenter  then  cuts 
a  small  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  folded  edge,  and  asks 
the  subject  to  draw  the  results  of  the  folding  and  cut- 
ting as  they  would  be  seen  if  the  paper  were  unfolded. 

(j)  Logical  Memory.  In  the  superior-adult  series 
is  a  test  which  requires  the  repetition  of  the  thought  of 
a  paragraph  read  by  the  experimenter.  Two  paragraphs 
are  provided,  and  success  with  one  of  them  is  sufficient 
to  pass  the  test. 

II.     Tests  of  the  Higher  Thought  Processes 

A.    Linguistic  Invention  and  Language  Ability. 

2.  Word  Building  (Whipple).     In  the  word-build- 
ing test  the  subject  is  given  six  letters  with  instructions 
to  form  as  many  different  words  as  possible  from  these 
letters  in  five  minutes.     A  word  may  contain  any  num- 
ber of  letters  from  one  to  six,  but  must  not  contain  the 
same  letter  twice  or  any  other  letter  not  in  the  list.     For 
our  purpose  two   tests  were  used  having   the   letters 
AEOBMT  and  EAIELP,  respectively.     The  score  is  the 
number  of  words  formed  in  the  time  allowed.     This  test 
requires  a  certain  fertility  of  vocabulary  and  construc- 
tive imagination.     For  further  discussion  see  Whipple 's 
Manual,  pp.  640ff. 

3.  Language    Tests    (Trabue).     The    Trabue    lan- 
uage  tests  are  fully  described  by  the  author.6     A  more 
general  treatment  of  the  type  of  test  to  which  they  be- 


*Trabue,  M.   R.,   Completion  Test  Language  Scales,   1916. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  23 

long  may  be  found  in  Whipple's  Manual,  pp.  649ff.  The 
tests  consist  of  a  series  of  sentences  in  which  certain 
words  are  omitted  and  the  omissions  indicated  by  blank 
spaces.  The  task  of  the  subject  is  to  fill  as  many  of  the 
blanks  as  possible  so  that  the  sentences  will  make  good 
sense.  Five  minutes  are  allowed  for  each  of  the  series 
J  and  K,  and  seven  minutes  for  B  and  C.  The  scoring 
is  done  by  allowing  two  points  for  each  sentence  correctly 
completed  and  one  for  each  sentence  completed  with  only 
a  minor  error.  Trabue's  monograph  must  be  consulted 
for  details  of  the  scoring.  He  refers  to  the  method  as 
one  that  ' '  psychologists  have  come  to  regard  as  an  unus- 
ually good  test  of  ability  to  think  about  words  and  lan- 
guage forms."7  It  is  significant  that  the  tests  are  called 
"language"  tests,  and  that  they  appear  to  have  a  high 
correlation  with  general  intelligence. 

4.  Invention  of  Story  (Winch).  This  is  a  form  of 
composition  test  in  which  the  subjects  are  asked  to  write 
a  story  containing  a  given  list  of  ten  words  (thief,  land- 
lord, crab,  etc.)  The  test  is  discussed  by  Whipple  in 
the  Manual,  pp.  634ff.  As  used  in  this  experiment,  the 
performances  were  scored  independently  by  20  judges, 
most  of  whom  were  members  of  an  advanced  class  in  edu- 
cation. The  papers  were  read  to  the  judges  by  the  in- 
structor and  each  paper  was  marked  on  a  scale  of  100 
points  as  soon  as  it  was  read.  It  was  assumed  that  100 
represented  a  performance  that  would  not  be  surpassed 
once  in  a  hundred  papers,  that  50  represented  average 
performance,  etc.  The  final  score  is  the  average  of  the 
scores  of  the  different  judges. 


7Trabue,  M.  R.,  Completion  Tests  for  Public  School  Use.  Fifteenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  1916,  pp. 
52-59. 


24  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

B.    Apprehension  of  Verbal  Relations,  or  Controlled' 
Association. 

5.  Hard  Opposites  (Henry).     The  opposites  test  is 
a  very  familiar  form  of  controlled  association  test.     (See 
Whipple 's  Manual,  pp.  79ff.)     A  list  of  20  stimulus, 
words  specially  selected  by  Dr.  T.  S.  Henry  was  used  in 
this  experiment.     Each  word  was  exposed  on  a  separate- 
card  and  the  time  of  the  response  was  taken  by  means 
of  a  stop-watch.     If  the   response  was  incorrect,   the 
subject  was  so  informed,  and  he  was  allowed  to  suggest 
the  correct  response,  or  at  least  tfp  try  again.     If  no  cor- 
rect response  was  made  in  30  seconds,  the  experimenter- 
passed  on  to  the  next  word  and  counted  30  seconds  as  the 
time  of  response.     The'  score  is  the  total  number  of  sec- 
onds for  20  responses.    ' 

6.  Analogies  (Whipple).     The  analogies  test  is  an- 
other form  of  controlled  association  test.     It  is  described 
in  Whipple 's  Manual,  pp.   89ff.     On  each  of  twenty 
cards  there  are  three  words  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
proportion  with  the  fourth  term  missing.     The  task  is: 
to  supply  a  fourth  word  which  shall  have  the  same  re- 
lation to  the  third  as  the  second  has  to  the  first.     The^ 
relation  between  the  words  changes  from  card  to  card. 
Time  is  recorded  and  the  same  provision  is  made  for- 
errors  as  in  the  hard  opposites  test.     Whipple 's  lists  A,. 

B,  and  C  have  been  used.     The  score  is  the  total  number- 
of  seconds  for  the  20  responses  (academy  group),  or  the 
average   number   of  seconds   for  one   response    (other- 
groups)  . 

C.  Invention  from  ^Graphic  Forms. 

7.  Ink-Blots  (Whipple).     The  ink-blots  test  is  de- 
scribed in  Whipple 's  Manual,  pp.  620ff.     The  subject  is> 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  25 

shown  a  series  of  20  ink-blots  and  is  asked  to  respond 
with  the  first  object  which  he  thinks  of  that  the  blot 
resembles.  We  used  essentially  "method  (b) "  as  de- 
scribed in  the  reference  cited,  except  that,  instead  of 
requiring  a  response  by  tapping  or  by  the  word  "now," 
we  asked  the  subject  to  respond  by  making  the  object 
thought  of.  It  seemed  that  this  procedure  might  sim- 
plify the  task  of  the  subject,  in  that  it  would  give  him 
fewer  things  to  hold  in  mind;  and  also  that  it  might 
serve  as  a  check  against  a  premature  response,  which  the 
subject  might  make  before  the  object  thought  of  had 
really  come  to  the  focus  of  attention.  If  the  subject 
was  unable  to  respond  within  a  minute,  the  experimenter 
proceeded  to  the  next  card.  In  the  computation  of  re- 
sults, however,  all  times  of  response  which  exceeded  15 
seconds  and  all  failures  to  respond  were  counted  as  15 
seconds.  The  use  of  15  seconds  for  this  purpose  appears 
to  penalize  the  slow  response  sufficiently  and  yet  not  too 
severely.  The  score  is  the  average  number  of  seconds 
required  for  one  response. 

8.  Pictorial  Imagination  (after  Eossolimo).  The 
pictorial  imagination  test  was  modelled  after  Eossolimo 's 
test  for  Einbildungskraft.8  It  consisted  of  twenty  in- 
complete drawings  of  familiar  objects  in  the  order  given : 
automobile,  dog,  watch,  cow,  tree,  boat,  chicken,  loco- 
motive, piano,  person  telephoning,  bicycle,  chair,  shoe, 
church,  pig,  bed,  bottle,  table,  face,  and  fiat.  Each  of 
these  incomplete  pictures  was  traced  on  a  separate  card. 
Directions  were  given  to  the  subject  substantially  as  fol- 
lows :  "  I  am  going  to  show  you  a  number  of  incomplete 
pictures.  Tell  me  in  each  case  what  the  picture  is  in- 

8Rossolimo,  G.  Die  Psychologischen  Profile.  Klinik  filr  psychische 
i'nd  nervose  Krankheiten,  1911,  Bd.  VI,  Heft  3. 


26  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

tended  to  represent.  If  you  make  a  mistake,  I  shall 
say,  '  No, '  and  you  must  go  on  until  you  have  guessed  it 
correctly.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  guess,  for  the  chances  are 
that  your  guess  will  be  correct. ' '  Time  was  taken  with 
the  stop-watch  for  each  response,  but  no  more  than  60 
seconds  was  allowed  for  one  response.  The  score  was 
calculated  precisely  as  in  the  ink-blots  test. 

D.     Understanding  and  Reasoning. 

9.  Directions  (Woodworth  and  Wells).     The  direc- 
tions tests  are  described  by  Woodworth  and  Wells.9 
The  second  and  third  of  the  tests  described,  easy  (a)  and 
hard  (b)  were  used.     In  these  tests  a  printed  blank  is 
placed  before  the  subject  with  instructions  to  do  as  rap- 
idly as  possible  without  making  mistakes  just  what  the 
blank  says  to  do.     Time  is  recorded  for  the  completion 
of  all  the  tasks  assigned.     The  score  is  computed  by 
allowing  100  points  for  an  errorless  performance,  sub- 
tracting 5  for  each  error,  and  dividing  the  remainder  by 
the  number  of  seconds  required  for  completing  the  test. 
A  number  of  activities  are  obviously  brought  into  opera- 
tion in  this  test.     It  is  a  kind  of  complex  reaction  exper- 
iment in  which  constantly  changing  tasks  are  assigned, 
and  in  which  the  time  for  apprehending  the  detailed  in- 
struction is  counted  as  well  as  the  time  for  responses. 

10.  Equivalent  Proverbs.     This  test   requires   the 
recognition  of  similarities  in  thoughts  differently  ex- 
pressed.    Two  lists  of  proverbs  are  presented  to  the 
subject.     One  proverb  in  each  list  means  substantially 
the  same  thing  as  one  in  the  other  list.     For  example, 
"A  friend  is  better  than  fortune"  expresses  substantially 
the  same  sentiment  as  the  Arabian  proverb, ' i  Good  friend 


'Woodworth,   R.  S.   and  Wells,   F.  L.     Association  Tests.     Psycholog- 
ical Review  Monographs,  13:  1911,  No.  5,  pp.  68ff. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  27 

is  better  than  money  in  pocket. "  The  task  of  the  sub- 
ject is  to  indicate  which  one  of  the  proverbs  in  the  one 
list  corresponds  to  each  one  in  the  second  list.  For  con- 
venience the  proverbs  are  printed  in  parallel  columns 
on  the  same  sheet,  and  those  in  one  list  are  numbered. 
Time  is  taken  for  the  completion  of  each  sheet.  Labor- 
atory sheets  I,  II,  and  VI  (from  the  Carnegie  Institute 
of  Technology),  requiring  29  judgments,  were  used. 
TKe  score  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  number  of 
seconds  required  for  the  three  tests  by  the  number  of 
correct  answers  given. 

11.  Arithmetical  Reasoning  (Bonser).     These  tests 
are  Tests  I  and  II,  as  described  in  Bonser 's  monograph.10 
They  consist  of  simple  arithmetical  problems,  and  were 
used  by  Bonser  "for  testing  the  mathematical  judg- 
ment."    Two  points  are  allowed  for  each  correct  solu- 
tion, and  one  point  for  each  two-step  problem  in  which 
only  one  step  is  correctly  solved.     The  final  score  is  the 
sum  of  these  points. 

12.  Reasoning  (Thurstone).11     This  test  consists  of 
20  samples  of  reasoning  containing  two  premises  and  a 
conclusion,  of  which  the  following  is  a  sample :     ' '  Silver 
is  heavier  than  iron ;  copper  is  lighter  than  silver ;  there- 
fore copper  is  heavier  than  iron. ' '     The  task  is  to  mark 
each  sample  plus  or  minus  according  as  the  conclusion 
is  true  or  false.     The  test  has  been  used  by  us  as  a  work- 
limit  test.     When  so  used,  the  score  is  the  number  of 
seconds  required  for  the  completion  of  the  test,  divided 
by  the  number  of  correct  judgments  made.     In  Miss 
Coy 's  tests  of  the  children,  the  test  was  given  with  a  time- 
limit  of  five  minutes.     The  score  in  this  case  (results  of 


10Bonser,    F.    G.      The   Reasoning    Ability    of   Children    of   the   Fourth, 
Fifth,   and  Sixth  School  Grades.     New  York,    1910.     Pp.    Iff. 


28  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

the  elementary  group)  is  the  number  of  correct  minus 
twice  the  number  of  incorrect  judgments. 

E.     Mental  Manipulation  of  Spatial  Forms. 

13.  Hand  Test  (Thurstone).11     The  test  sheet  con- 
tains 49  pictures  of  right  and  left  human  hands  in  vary- 
ing positions.     The  subject  is  asked  to  check  the  right 
or  left  of  two  small  squares  according  as  a  right  or  left 
hand  is  represented.     In  tests  of  the  high-school  students 
and  adults  the  time  for  completing  the  test  was  recorded. 
The  score  was  computed  by  dividing  the  number  of  sec- 
onds required  for  the  completion  of  the  test  by  the  num- 
ber of  hands  correctly  checked.     In  the  tests  of  the  ele- 
mentary group  the  test  was  given  with  a  time  limit  of 
three  minutes.     In  this  case  the  score  is  the  number  of 
hands  correctly  checked,  minus  twice  the  number  of 
hands  incorrectly  checked. 

14.  Spatial  Relations  Test  (Thurstone).11     In  this 
test  a  lozenge-shaped  figure  is  imagined  to  be  a  card. 
The  drawing  indicates  a  hole  in  one  corner.     It  is  re- 
quired that  the  subject  in  imagination  lift  this  card,  turn 
it  over,  fit  it  upon  the  only  one  of  two  similar  drawings 
which  it  will  match,  and  indicate  the  location  of  the  hole 
upon  the  matched  figure.     The  test.was  given  as  a  work- 
limit  test.     The  score  is  the  number  of  seconds  required 
for  completing  the  test,  divided  by  the  number  of  figures 
correctly  matched.     In  practice  we  found  a  great  deal 
of  difficulty  in  getting  students  to  understand  and  to 
hold  to  the  task  assigned.     It  is,  therefore,   doubtful 
whether  the  test  should  be  used  to  measure  the  power 
of  an  individual  mentally  to  manipulate  visually  pre- 
sented forms. 


uWe  are  indebted  to  Dr.  L.  L.  Thurstone  of  the  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Technology  for  the  Thurstone  reasoning  test  and  the  other  tests  in  ithe 
title  of  which  Thurstone  occurs. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  29 

15.  Punched  Holes  Test   (Thurstone).11     A  series 
of  diagrams  representing  a  sheet  of  paper  folded  in  dif- 
ferent ways  and  punctured  at  different  places  is  placed 
before  the  subject.     The  task  is  to  determine  the  location 
of  the  holes  as  they  would  be  seen  if  the  paper  were  un- 
folded.    One  point  is  allowed  for  each  hole  correctly 
placed,  and  the  sum  of  these  points  constitutes  the  score. 

16.  Painted  Cube  (Rugg).     The  painted  cube  test 
is  the  same  as  that  used  and  described  by  Rugg  in  his 
study  of  mental  discipline  and  descriptive  geometry.12 
The  student  is  given  a  paper  containing  the  statement, 
"A  three-inch  cube,  painted  on  all  sides,  is  cut  into  one- 
inch  cubes. ' '     He  is  required  to  state  in  blanks  properly 
provided  how  many  one-inch  cubes  have  paint  on  three 
sides,   two   sides,   one  side,   and  no  side,   respectively. 
Rugg  gave  the  test  on  a  time-limit  basis  (80  seconds.) 
Since  there  was  no  assurance  that  the  different  elements 
of  the  test  were  of  equal  or  evenly  graded  difficulty,  this 
method  of  giving  the  test  seemed  to  us  unwise,  and  ac- 
cordingly we  have  used  the  work-limit  basis.     The  pre- 
liminary instructions  also  were  modified  for  our  pur- 
pose.    We  expected  to  use  the  test  with  children  and 
with  other  subjects  who  might  be  unaccustomed  to  think 
in  terms  of  the  language  of  the  test.     Hence  it  seemed  to 
us  advisable  to  explain  briefly  what  a  cube  is  and  what 
it  means  to  divide  it  into  smaller  cubes.     The  score  is 
the  number  of  seconds  required  for  completing  the  test, 
divided  by  the  number  of  correct  answers  given. 

We  attempted  to  simplify  the  language  of  the  "geo- 
metrical objects7'  test  described  by  the  same  author,  and 
to  use  it  for  our  study,  but  it  proved  to  be  rather  un- 


32Rugg,  H.  O.     The  Experimental  Determination  of  Mental  Discipline 
<'//    School  Studies,  1916,  pp.  41f. 


30  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

suited  for  our  purpose.  The  difficulties  were  those  of 
language  and  unfamiliarity  with  one  or  more  objects 
named.  In  this  test  the  subject  is  asked  to  imagine 
various  objects  and  to  state  the  number  of  lines  which 
would  be  required  to  construct  them  in  space. 

Eugg  regards  the  Painted  Cube  test  as  a  measure 
"of  ability  in  mental  manipulation  of  strictly  geomet- 
rical elements. . . .  The  diversity  of  the  tests  [painted 
cube  and  geometrical  elements]  and  the  short  time  given 
for  the  solution  of  each  one  are  believed  to  prevent 
effectually  the  building  up  of  a  definite  method  of  so- 
lution through  reasoning  processes  (organization,  etc.). 
In  other  words,  it  is  believed  that  a  solution  of  each  of 
these  tests  is  confined  to  (1)  a  mental  picturing  of  the 
object,  (2)  the  counting  of  the  various  lines  and  sur- 
faces, (3)  the  writing  of  the  various  answers.13. " 

F.     Aesthetic  Judgment. 

17.  Tests  of  Aesthetic  Appreciation  (Thorndike). 
Professor  Thorndike  has  recently  described  certain  tests 
for  aesthetic  appreciation,  among  which  are  a  few  tests 
for  appreciation  of  graphic  forms.14  Professor  Thorn- 
dike  graciously  allowed  us  to  secure  from  his  printer 
copies  of  the  original  series  from  which  these  tests  were 
chosen.  The  forms  reproduced  in  the  article  cited  are 
arranged  in  seven  series:  two  series  of  five  rectangles 
each,  two  series  of  four  crosses  each,  one  series  of  five 
ladder-like  designs,  and  two  series  of  four  rectangles 
each  in  which  are  located  two  vertical  lines  in  different 
positions.  The  subject  is  asked  to  arrange  the  figures 
in  each  series  in  a  rank  order  on  the  basis  of  which  is 


™Op.  cit.,  p.  42. 

"Thorndike,   E.   L.,   Tests   of   Esthetic  Appreciation.     Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Psychology,   7:    1916,   509-522. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  31 

the  "best  looking, "  "next  best  looking, "  and  so  on. 
The  original  drawings,  from  which  those  printed  in  the 
article  were  selected,  proved  rather  impracticable  for  our 
purpose.  The  problem  of  arranging  the  full  series  in 
a  rank  order  was  too  complex.  The  results  given  for 
the  laboratory  group  are  based  upon  tracings  made  from 
the  original  sheets  of  the  forms  represented  in  the  article. 
In  other  groups  we  used  mimeographed  forms  drawn  on 
a  smaller  scale,  the  same  scale  as  used  in  the  article. 
The  scores  are  based  upon  the  first  five  only  of  the  seven 
series  presented  by  Professor  Thorndike.  Early  expe- 
rience with  the  other  two  series  (the  rectangles  contain- 
ing two  vertical  lines)  led  us  to  omit  them  from  the  later 
tests.  On  the  one  hand,  they  seemed  to  overemphasize 
considerations  of  symmetry ;  on  the  other,  there  ap- 
peared a  tendency  to  imagine  that  they  represented  ob- 
jects. In  measuring  the  performance  of  a  given  individ- 
ual in  the  test,  the  amount  of  each  deviation  of  his  judg- 
ment from  the  order  established  by  the  consensus  of 
opinion  as  given  in  the  article  was  noted.  For  example, 
if  a  figure  is  placed  first  by  the  subject,  when  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  has  placed  it  third,  the  deviation  is 
counted  as  two.  The  score  is  the  sum  of  the  several  de- 
viations in  the  five  series. 

18.  Test  of  Aesthetic  Judgment  (University  of  Illi- 
nois). This  test  was  made  up  during  the  course  of  our 
study.15  It  is  built  upon  the  same  principle  which  the 
Binet-Simon  series  has  long  utilized  in  its  test  of 
aesthetic  comparison.  Our  series  consists  essentially  of 
a  number  of  paired  pictures  or  drawings,  the  one  of 
which  is  more  beautiful,  prettier,  or  more  pleasing  in 

15The  possibility  of  such  a  test  was  suggested  by  a  series  of  comparisons 
which  Miss  Coy  had  prepared.  Professor  E.  J.  Lake  of  the  Department  of 
Art  and  Design  contributed  valuable  suggestions,  and  Miss  Hilda  Chris- 
tensen,  a  student  in  that  department,  prepared  some  of  the  drawings. 


32  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

appearance  than  the  other.  Some  of  the  drawings  or 
pictures  were  clipped  or  copied  from  art  or  architectural 
publications,  and  others  were  drawn  or  designed  for  our 
purpose.  Seventy  comparisons  constituted  the  series. 
From  this  number  we  selected,  on  the  basis  of  our  re- 
sults, 40  for  the  final  score.  In  each  of  the  40  compari- 
sons which  we  retained,  the  consensus  of  opinion  of 
about  20  adults  and  high-school  students  who  submitted 
to  the  test,  confirmed  our  personal  judgment  as  to  which 
was  the  better — except  in  the  case  of  one  pair  of  archi- 
tectural pictures,  where  the  judgments  were  equally  di- 
vided. In  this  case  we  continued  to  count  that  one  the 
better  which  the  author,  from  whose  work  the  pictures 
were  chosen,  had  pointed  out  as  the  more  beautiful.16 

Directions  to  the  subjects  were  substantially  as  fol- 
lows :  "In  this  experiment  you  will  be  shown  a  series 
of  drawings  or  pictures  of  various  objects.  Two  draw- 
ings or  pictures  representing  the  same  kind  of  thing 
will  be  presented  at  the  same  time.  In  each  case  you 
will  be  expected  to  name  which  of  the  two  objects  repre- 
sented has  the  more  pleasing  appearance.  If  you  like 
the  appearance  of  the  one  to  your  right  the  better,  you 
will  say  *  Right, '  if  you  like  the  appearance  of  the  one 
to  your  left  the  better,  you  will  say  'Left.'  Your  choice 
should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  beauty  or  the  pretti- 
ness  of  the  objects  represented  as  these  appeal  to  you. 
Do  not  try  to  select  according  to  any  rules,  but  entirely" 
according  to  the  way  they  look  to  you.  The  letters 
which  sometimes  occur  on  the  drawings  or  pictures  indi- 
cate nothing  in  this  connection,  and  you  will  pay  no  at- 
tention whatever  to  the  way  the  figures  are  mounted  on 


16Robinson,  John  B.     Architectural  Composition,  Second  Edition,  Lon- 
don and  New  York,   1908. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  33 

the  cards.  Eemember  to  name  the  one  you  like  better. ' ' 
In  almost  all  cases  the  subjects  were  asked  also  to  state, 
if  possible,  the  reason  for  each  choice. 

The  score  is  computed  by  allowing  2^2  points  for 
each  correct  choice  made. 

///.     Tests  of  Memory  and  Learning 
A.    Logical  Memory. 

19.  Marble  Statue  (Whipple).     The  MarUe  Statue 
test  is  used  for  a  measure  of  logical  memory.     The  ma- 
terial of  the  test  is  a  passage  of  simple  prose.     The  selec- 
tion is  read  to  the  subject,  who  immediately  thereafter 
attempts  to  reproduce  in  writing  what  has  been  read. 
He  is  instructed  to  use,  if  possible,  the  original  words, 
otherwise  his  own  words.     The  time  taken  for  the  repro- 
duction is  not  recorded.     The  test  is  fully  described  by 
Whipple  in  the  Manual,  pp.  571ff.     The  method  given 
by  Whipple  was  used  except  that  the  underlining  was 
omitted.     The  score  is  the  number  of  ideas  correctly 
reproduced. 

20.  Dutch   Homestead    (Whipple).      This    test    is 
similar  to  the  Marble  Statue  test,  except  that  the  sub- 
ject reads  the  passage  himself.     See  Whipple 's  Manual, 
p.  574,  "Variation  of  Method,  (1)."     The  score  is  the 
number  of  ideas  correctly  reproduced. 

21.  Cicero  (Whipple).     This  test  is  similar  to  the 
Marble  Statue  test  and  it  is  scored  in  the  same  way. 
See  Whipple 's  Manual,  p.  575. 

22.  Lincoln  and  the  Pig  (Whipple).     This  test  also 
is  similar  to  the  Marble  Statue  test  and  it  is  scored  in  the 
same  way.     The  selection  used  is  entitled,  "How  Mr. 
Lincoln  Helped  the  Pig."    This  test  was  given  to  the 


34  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

elementary  group.  Both  immediate  reproduction  ancl 
reproduction  after  two  weeks  were  required.  See  Whip- 
pie  's  Manual,  p.  573. 

B.    Memory  for  Visual  Forms. 

23.  Memory  for  Lineal  Figures,  with  Recognition 
(Rossolimo).     This  test   is  taken  from  the   Rossolimo 
series.17     The  drawings  (simple  nonsense  figures)  given 
in  the  Rossolimo  pamphlets  were  used.     The  directions 
for  the  test  were  in  substance:     "I  am  going  to  show 
you  ten  figures  or  drawings.     You  will  look  at  each  for 
a  period  of  two  or  three  seconds,  and,  after  you  have 
seen  them  all,  I  shall  give  you  25  figures,  some  of  which 
are  just  like  those  which  you  will  have  seen.     You  will 
be  expected  to  pick  from  these  25  the  10  which  you  have 
seen."     The  original  10  drawings  were  exposed  by  turn- 
ing the  pages  of  the  small  pamphlet  in  which  they  were 
printed.     The  25  drawings  were  mounted  on  cards.     No 
time  was  recorded.     The  score  is  the  number  of  figures 
recognized. 

24.  Memory  for  Colored  Figures,  with  Recognition 
(Rossolimo).     This  test  is  similar  to  the  one  just  de- 
scribed and  is  scored  in  the  same  way.     It  is  taken  from 
the  same  source.     The  figures  in  this  test  are  colored 
areas. 

25.  Memory  for  Pictures,  with  Recognition  (Rosso- 
limo).    This  test  is  another  from  Rossolimo,  and  is  sim- 
ilar in  method  and  scoring  to  the  two  already  described. 
Pictures  of  landscapes  are  used  in  the  test,  instead  of 
meaningless  figures  as  in  the  two  preceding  tests. 


"Rossolimo,    G.      Die   psychologischen    Profile.     EliniJc   fiir   psychische 
und  nervose  Krankheiten,  6:   1911,  No.  3. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  35 

C.    Learning. 

26.  Substitution     (Thurstone).11     The     Thurstone 
substitution  test  is  a  new  form  of  a  well-known  test. 
Twenty  words,  (umbrella,  equinox,  etc.,)  are  printed  at 
the  top   of  a  large  sheet  of  paper.     Below  these  are 
printed  in  vertical  columns  and  in  varying  order  the 
initials  of  these  twenty  words.     Each  initial  is  followed 
by  a  blank  space.     There  are  thirty  columns  of  these 
initials  each  containing  twenty  letters.     The   columns 
are  arranged  in  sets  of  three  and  these  sets  are  num- 
bered from  one  to  ten.     The  subject  is  instructed  to  fill 
in  the  blanks  opposite  each  letter  with  the  last  letter  of 
the  word  at  the  top  of  the  paper,  of  which  the  letter 
given  is  the  initial.     At  the  end  of  each  minute  the 
subject  must  stop  work  in  the  section  in  which  he  then 
is  and  shift  to  the  succeeding  section.     Ten  minutes 
are,  therefore,  required  for  the  completion  of  the  test. 
The  result  is  a  record  of  the  number  of  substitutions 
made  during  each  of  ten  successive  minutes  in  which  the 
task  remains  the  same  and  the  material  becomes  pro- 
gressively more  familiar.     The  score  is  the  total  number 
of  correct  substitutions  made  in  the  10  minutes.     The 
activity  required  is,  of  course,  complicated.     Persistence 
of  effort  and  concentration  of  attention  are  put  at  a 
premium.     Ease  of  memorizing  and  rapidity  of  reaction 
also  tend  to  increase  the  score. 

27.  Perceptual  Learning.     The  perceptual  learning 
test  may  be  described  as  a  test  of  the  memory  for  simple 
nonsense  figures  or  drawings  in  which  repeated  trials 
are  made  and  in  which  the  memory  is  tested  by  attempted 
reproduction.     The  figures  are  generally  similar  to  those 
used  by  Judd  and  Cowling  in  their  study  of  the  percep- 


36  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

tual  process.18  The  figures  consisted  of  simple  end-to- 
end  combinations  of  four,  six,  eight,  and  ten,  straight 
and  curved  lines.  One  figure  was  exposed  for  a  period 
of  five  or  six  seconds,  and  after  the  copy  was  removed 
the  subject  tried  to  reproduce  what  he  saw,  making  it 
as  nearly  like  the  original  as  possible.  Five  trials  were 
thus  given  with  each  figure  in  the  order  as  given  above. 
After  each  attempted  reproduction  the  figure  drawn 
was  laid  aside  or  turned  over  in  order  that  the  subject 
might  not  be  influenced  in  the  observation  or  subsequent 
drawing  by  the  sight  of  what  he  had  just  drawn.  The 
score  in  the  test  was  calculated  from  the  performance  in 
the  fifth  trial  at  reproducing  each  figure. 

In  order  to  assure  accuracy  in  the  scoring,  a  rather 
elaborate  method  was  employed.  The  score  is  expressed 
in  terms  of  deductions  as  follows:  (A  single  segment 
of  the  line  is  called  a  "curve.") 

(1)  1  point  for  each  error  in  the  type  of  curve, 

for  example,  the  use  of  a  straight  line 
where  the  line  should  be  curved,  or  of  a 
convex  curve  where  it  should  be  concave ; 

(2)  1  to  3  points  for  gross  malformation  of  the 

separate  curves  in  the  figure  as  a  whole ; 

(3)  4  points  for  each  extra  line; 

(4)  4  points  for  each  omitted  line;  or  2  points, 

if  the  general  form  of  the  whole  was  pre- 
served ; 

(5)  1  point  for  each  ten-degree  deviation  from. 

the  true  direction  of  each  curve,  provided 
that  such  deductions  did  not  exceed  4  for 
each  curve. 


18Judd,    C.   H.,    and   Cowling,    D.   J.     Studies   in   Perceptual   Develop- 
ment, Psychological  Review  Monographs,  8:    1907,   349-369. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  37 

In  measuring  the  deviations  from  the  true  direction, 
a  special  type  of  transparent  protractor,  which  had  been 
planned  and  used  by  the  author  for  the  measurement  of 
slant  in  handwriting,  was  used. 

28.  Mirror  Drawing  (Star  Test).     In  the  mirror- 
drawing  test,  the  subject  is  required  to  trace  the  outline 
of  a  five-pointed  star  seen  in  a  mirror.     Time  is  recorded 
for  the  completion  of  each  tracing.     When  two  hands" 
are  used,  the  right-hand  record  is  taken  first — except  in 
the  case  of  one  left-handed  subject,  who  traced  the  draw- 
ing first  with  his  left  hand.     The  test  is  discussed  by 
Whipple  in  the  Manual,  pp.  485ff.     The  score  is  the 
number  of  seconds  required  for  each  tracing. 

D.     Imagery. 

29.  Questionary  (Betts).     An  attempt  was  made  to 
discover  the  imagery  used  by  the  subject  by  means  of 
the  Betts  questionary19  for  images  voluntarily  evoked. 
Only  the  questions  for  visual,  auditory,  and  kinaesthetic 
images  were  used.     The  rather  long  list  of  questions  for 
visual  imagery  was  reduced  in  length  by  the  omission 
of  Part  IV  containing  questions  25-32.     Our  subjects 
were    untrained    in    psychological    introspection.      We 
adopted  rather  lengthy  preliminary  instructions  in  an 
attempt  to  overcome  partially  this  lack  of  training.     In 
these  instructions  we  attempted  to  explain  the  nature 
of  the  image  in  the  fields  of  sight,  audition,  and  kin- 
aesthesis,  and  gave  the  subjects  a  little  practice  in  re- 
porting upon  their  images.     The  results  of  the  tests  can 
be  termed  "introspections"  only  in  a  very  loose  sense, 
but  it  seemed  worth  while  to  give  the  method  a  trial  in 
this  connection.     It  is  the  task  of  the  subject  to  classify 


"Betts,    G.   H.     The   Distribution  and  Functions  of  Mental  Imagery. 
(Doctor's  Dissertation,  Columbia  University,  1909)  pp.  20ff. 


38  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

the  images  which  are  evoked  in  response  to  the  directions. 
These  are  classified  according  to  seven  ' '  degrees  of  clear- 
ness and  vividness/7  which  are  specified  in  the  "key" 
given.  The  degrees  named  range  from  (1)  "perfectly 
clear  and  as  vivid  as  the  actual  experience,"  to  (7)  "no 
image  present  at  all,  you  only  knowing  that  you  are 
thinking  of  the  object."  The  results  are  expressed 
numerically  in  two  ways:  (1)  The  percentage  of  images 
in  each  modality  reported  as  having  each  degree  of  clear- 
ness is  computed.  (2)  Each  number  (1  to  7)  of  a  de- 
gree of  clearness  is  regarded  as  a  score,  and  all  of  these 
partial  scores  in  a  given  modality  are  added  to  produce 
a  number  which  represents  the  vividness  of  the  imagery 
reported.  If,  for  example,  the  sum  of  the  partial  scores 
is  large,  it  indicates  that  many  reports  were  made  of 
images  belonging  to  the  lesser  degrees  of  clearness.  By 
comparison  of  these  scores  with  those  given  by  Betts,  one 
may  presumably  find  out  how  the  vividness  of  the 
imagery  of  a  given  individual  compares  with  that  of  the 
average  person. 

We  supplemented  Bett's  questionary  with  questions 
of  our  own  also,  in  order  to  find  out  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  clearness  particularly  of  the  visual  imagery  of  the 
subjects  to  whom  the  questionary  was  given. 

IV.     Tests  of  Reading 

30.  Reading  Forward  (Whipple).20  This  test  is 
used  to  measure  the  speed  with  which  one  can  read 
aloud  a  given  passage  of  simple  prose.  The  selection 
used  was  a  simple  description  of  Indian  life.  The  score 
is  the  number  of  seconds  consumed  in  the  reading  of  the 
passage. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  39 

31.  Reading  Backward  (Whipple).20     In  this  test 
the  subject  matter  is  of  the  same  kind  as  that  used  in 
the  preceding  test.     The  first  word,  however,  appears  at 
the  right  end  of  the  bottom  line,  and  the  subject  must 
read  backward  toward  the  usual  place   of  beginning. 
Furthermore,  there  is  no  punctuation,  capitalization,  or 
spacing  between  words.     Within  the  word,  the  letters 
are  in  their  usual  left-to-right  order.     The  test  demands 
a  certain  familiarity  with  verbal  combinations  and  an 
apprehension  of  contextual  relations.     The  experimenter 
corrects  each  error  in  the  reading,  but  does  not  help  the 
subject  otherwise  except  in  cases  where  the  reader  pauses 
for  as  long  as  30  seconds.     The  score  is  the  number  of 
words  read  in  five  minutes,  or,  if  the  passage  was  com- 
pleted in  less  time,  the  number  of  words  which  presum- 
ably would  have  been  read  in  the  period. 

V.     Tests  of  Observation 

32.  Cancellation     (Whipple).     Four     cancellation 
tests  were  used :  the  cancelling  of  a 's  on  the  Jipl  blank 
by  the  work-limit  method ;  the  cancelling  of  a  7s  on  the  zcy 
blank  with  a  time-limit  of  two  minutes;  the  cancelling 
of  triangles  on  the  geometrical  forms  blank  by  .the  work- 
limit  method  (or  a  time-limit,  if  the  work  was  incomplete 
at  the  end  of  two  minutes)  ;  and  the  cancelling  of  7's  on 
the  numeral  blank  with  a  time-limit  of  two  minutes. 
The  four  printed  forms  are  identical  with  those  described 
by  Whipple  (Manual,  p.  309).     The  cancellation  test  is 
so  familiar  as  to  require  no  further  explanation.     Three 
methods  of  scoring  are  used  in  these  results:  (1)  When 
the  test  is  regarded  as  a  time-limit  test  (except  as  noted 
below),  the  score  is  the  number  of  symbols  correctly  can- 
celled minus  twice  the  number  of  symbols  omitted  in  the 


^For  a  further  discussion  of  the  reading  test,   see  Whipple's  Manual, 
pp.   332ff. 


40  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

portion  of  the  blank  covered.  (2)  When  the  test  is  re- 
garded as  a  work-limit  test  and  the  time  is  recorded  for 
completing  the  blank,  the  score  is  the  number  of  seconds 
consumed,  divided  by  the  number  of  symbols  correctly 
cancelled  minus  twice  the  number  omitted.  (3)  In 
Tables  3  and  4,  a  third  method  of  scoring  the  7's  test  is 
used  in  order  to  make  our  scores  comparable  to  those 
submitted  as  a  background.  In  these  tables  the  score  is 
the  number  of  symbols  cancelled  divided  by  the  number 
of  seconds  required. 

33.  Observation  (Rossolimo).  This  is  Rossolimo's 
test  of  "Beobachtungsfahigkeit."21  The  material  em- 
ployed consists  of  ten  pictures  and  drawings.  Our 
method  of  giving  the  test  is  as  follows:  A  question  is 
asked  the  subject  before  the  exposure  of  each  drawing. 
He  is  expected  to  respond  as  soon  as  possible  with  the 
right  answer.  If  his  answer  is  incorrect,  he  is  so  in- 
formed and  opportunity  to  give  the  correct  response  is 
given.  Not  more  than  a  minute  is  allowed  for  each 
question.  Time  is  taken  with  the  stop-watch  from  the 
beginning  of  the  exposure  until  the  correct  response  is 
indicated.  The  problems  given  are  substantially  as  fol- 
lows and  will  explain  the  nature  of  the  test : 

1.  You  will  be  shown  a  picture  of  a  face.     Tell  me 
as  soon  as  you  can  what  is  lacking  in  the  picture.     (An 
ear  is  lacking.) 

2.  The  next  is  a  picture  of  a  balcony  on  the  front  of 
a  house.     Tell  me  where  the  master  of  the  house  is. 
(The  profile  of  a  face  is  made  a  part  of  the  bracket  sup- 
porting the  balcony.) 


^Rossolimo,    G.     Die   psychologischen    Profile.     Klinik    filr   psychische 
und  nervose  Erankheiten,  6:   1911,  No.  3. 


DESCRIPTION  OP  TESTS  41 

3.  Next  is  the  picture  of  two  trees.     Find  the  man's 
face.     (The  face  is  between  the  branches  and  trunks  of 
the  trees.) 

4.  Next  is  a  steamboat  on  the  lake.     Tell  me  whether 
it  is  moving  or  standing  still.     After  the  subject  has 
replied  he  is  asked  "why,"  and  the  time  is  recorded  to 
the  point  where  it  is  evident  that  he  has  the  correct  ex- 
planation.    (The  steamboat  is  drawn  with  the  absence 
of  steam  or  smoke  and  the  subject  can  judge  that  it  is 
moving  only  by  the  wake  behind  and  the  foam  in  front.) 

5.  Next  is  a  picture  of  two  tables.     Tell  me  how  they 
are  different.     (One  has  two  drawers  and  the  other  but 
one.     The  problem  is  complicated  by  the  representation 
of  the  same  objects  but  of  different  sizes  on  each  table.) 

6.  Next  are  the  pictures  of  two  soldiers.     Tell  me 
how  their   uniforms  are   different.     (The   outstanding 
difference  is  in  the  reversal  of  two  colors  in  the  two  uni- 
forms.    As  soon  as  the  subject  has  indicated  that  he 
knows  this  difference,  he  is  asked  to  indicate  what  other 
difference  there  is.     The  other  difference  is  in  the  num- 
ber of  buttons  on  the  coats.) 

7.  Next  is  the  picture  of  a  hunter  with  his  dog. 
'Tell  me  what  is  the  trouble  with  the  dog's  going.     Why 
doesn't  the  dog  go  along.     (The  dog  has  only  two  legs, 
but  the  picture  is  so  drawn  as  to  allow  the  interpretation 
that  the  other  two  legs  are  hidden  behind  those  which 
are  shown.) 

8.  Next  is  the  picture  of  a  summer  house.     Where 
is  the  bird?     (The  bird  is  formed  by  the  outline  of  the 
top  of  the  roof.) 

9.  Next  is  the  picture  of  a  river.     Tell  me  whether 
it  is  shallow  or  deep.     (It  is  shallow,  because  some  one 


42  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

has  just  walked  across  it.  The  subject  is  required  to 
give  the  correct  reason.) 

10.  On  the  next  page  are  several  colored  dots.  Can 
you  find  any  regularity  in  the  arrangement  of  the  dots  ? 
(The  black  dots  are  arranged  in  a  circle,  while  the  others 
are  scattered  about.) 

In  this  test,  as  in  the  test  for  Einbildungskraft,  Ros- 
solimo  appears  to  have  omitted  the  time  of  response  in 
reckoning  the  score.  As  we  have  used  the  test  the  time 
has  seemed  significant.  We  have  accordingly  scored  the 
test  by  finding  the  average  time  of  response,  counting  15 
seconds  for  all  responses  or  failures  requiring  more  than 
15  seconds.  (The  reason  for  using  the  15-second  limit 
has  been  explained  in  the  case  of  the  ink-blots  test  and 
is  the  same  for  this  test.) 

34.  Stamp  Test  (Whipple).     The  stamp  test  is  de- 
scribed in  Whipple 's  Manual,  pp.  376ff.     A  cancelled 
two-cent  postage  stamp  mounted  on  a  white  background 
is  given  to  the  subject  with  instructions  to  write  a  com- 
plete description  of  it.     The  numerical  score,  which  we 
have  used,  is  based  upon  an  allowance  of  one  point  for 
each  feature  of  the  stamp  which  was  mentioned. 

35.  Spot-Pattern    (McDougall).     The   spot-pattern 
test  is  described  by  Whipple  (Manual,  page  290ff.)     We 
used  the  disc  tachistoscope  and  five  seven-spot  patterns. 
The  time  of  exposure  was  approximately  1.6  seconds.  • 
In  this  test  seven  spots  variously  arranged  are  exposed 
for  the  short  period  indicated  and  the  subject  attempts 
to  reproduce  the  pattern  on  cross-section  paper.     The 
exposures  are  repeated  until  the  reproduction  is  cor- 
rect.    In  the  case  of  all  of  our  subjects  whose  results 
are  reported,  each  attempted  reproduction  was  left  in 
view  while  the  next  was  being  made.     It  is  doubtful 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  43 

whether  the  results  of  82  are  comparable  with  those  of 
the  others,  since  the  cards  were  given  in  a  reverse  order, 
owing  to  a  difficulty  arising  in  the  first  part  of  the  test. 
The  score  is  the  average  number  of  exposures  required 
per  card. 

VI.     Tests  of  Sensory  Discrimination 

36.  Test  for  Color  Vision  (Nagel).     The  Nagel  test 
for  color  vision  is  described  in  Whipple  's  Manual,  page, 
190ff.     The  test  consists  in  the   identification  of  red, 
green,  and  gray  spots  on  white  cards.     The  purpose  of 
the  test  is  to  test  the  normality  of  color  vision. 

37.  Discrimination  of  Differences.     It  was  thought 
desirable  to  test  the  ability  of  our  subjects  to  distinguish 
small  differences  in  form  and  size.     We  desired  a  test 
that  would  not  require  the  elaborate  precautions  of  an 
ordinary  experiment  in  psychophysics,  which  would  re- 
quire little  or  no  apparatus,  and  which  would  allow 
prolonged  viewing  of  the  forms  with  as  much  eye  move- 
ment as  might  be  desired.     We  found  no  such  test  de- 
scribed in  the  literature.     Hence  we  set  about  to  make 
one.     The  first  series  consists  of  seven  pairs  of  straight 
lines,  seven  pairs  of  angles,  and  six  arcs  of  circles.     Each 
pair  is  arranged  on  a  4  x  6-inch  card.     The  position  of 
the  lines  vary  somewhat  among  different  cards,  that  is, 
on  some  they  are  arranged  in  a  horizontal  line,  on  others 
they  are  inclined  toward  each  other,  etc.    On  the  same 
card,  however,  each  line  occupies  a  corresponding  or  ap- 
proximately symmetrical  position  with  reference  to  the 
vertical  axis  of  the  card.     The  straight  lines,  angles,  and 
arcs  alternate  in  order  of  presentation.     The  straight 
lines  differ  by  a  small  amount  in  length.     The  size  of  the 
angles  differs  sjightly,  while  the  length  of  the  sides  re- 


44  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

mains  constant.  The  curvature  of  the  arcs  differs 
slightly.  It  was  intended  that  the  arcs  should  have 
cords  of  the  same  length,  but  it  was  found  that  in  one 
instance  at  least  this  aim  was  not  realized.  The  inten- 
tion was  to  eliminate  the  operation  of  illusions  as  far  as 
possible  and  to  require  a  judgment  on  the  basis  of  two 
similar  visual  presentations.  The  subject  is  asked  which 
of  the  two  lines  is  the  longer,  of  the  two  angles  the 
larger,  and  of  the  two  curves  the  flatter,  that  is,  more 
nearly  a  straight  line.  Each  card  is  judged  twice.  The 
first  judgment  is  made  in  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  none 
of  the  cards  has  on  it  two  equal  magnitudes,  and  the  sub- 
ject is  allowed  to  judge  the  two  magnitudes  equal  in 
cases  where  he  could  discriminate  no  difference.  After 
the  test  in  discrimination  of  proportions  has  been  given 
(where  it  is  given  at  all),  the  subject  is  informed  that 
there  is  in  fact  a  difference  in  each  pair  judged,  and  a 
second  judgment  is  made  without  reference  to  the  first. 
In  this  second  judgment,  the  subject  is  required  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  two  whether  he  can  distinguish  a 
real  difference  or  not.  The  score  is  the  sum  of  the 
correct  judgments  made  in  the  two  trials.  Judg- 
ments of  ' '  equal ' '  in  the  first  trial  are  given  half  credit. 
38.  Discrimination  of  Proportions.  The  test  in  dis- 
crimination of  proportions  is  similar  to  the  one  just 
described,  except  that  in  this  case  proportions  are 
judged.  There  are  twelve  cards,  six  containing  four 
straight  lines  each  and  six  containing  four  angles  each. 
The  lines  and  angles  are  so  arranged  that  one  could  say, 
for  example,  if  the  proportions  were  true,  ' '  The  length 
of  the  first  line  is  to  the  length  of  the  second  as  the  length 
of  the  third  line  is  to  the  length  of  the  fourth. "  As  a 
matter  of  fact  none  of  the  proportions  is  a  true  one.  As 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  45 

in  the  test  of  discrimination  of  difference,  the  test  is 
given  twice.  In  the  first  case  the  subject  does  not  know 
that  all  of  the  proportions  are  not  true,  and  he  is  allowed 
to  answer  that  a  proportion  is  a  true  one.  If  he  judges 
the  proportion  not  to  be  true,  then  it  is  required  that  he 
state  whether  the  fourth  line  is  too  long  or  too  short 
(or  whether  the  fourth  angle  is  too  large  or  too  small). 
Preliminary  to  the  second  judgment  the  subject  is  in- 
formed that  the  proportions  are  all  untrue  and  he  is 
asked  to  state,  independently  of  his  first  judgment, 
whether  the  fourth  line  is  too  long  or  too  short  (or 
whether  the  fourth  angle  is  too  large  or  too  small) .  The 
score  is  the  sum  of  the  correct  judgments  made  in  the 
two  trials.  In  the  first  trial,  judgments  that  the  pro- 
portions are  true  are  given  half  credit. 

VII.     General  Physical  and  Motor  Tests 

39.  Tapping.  In  the  tapping  test  the  rate  of  tap- 
ping with  each  hand  is  ascertained.  For  this  purpose 
we  used  a  tapping-board  stylus,  seconds  pendulum22 
kymograph  and  smoked  paper,  and  double  time-marker 
as  recommended  by  Whipple  (Manual,  pp.  130ff.)  The 
apparatus  and  method  were  explained  and  illustrated  to 
the  subject  before  taking  the  record.  A  record  of  30 
seconds,  presumably  at  the  subject's  maximum  rate,  was 
secured  for  each  hand.  Usually  the  experimenter  al- 
lowed the  subject  to  run  over  the  period  two  or  three 
seconds  in  order  to  be  sure  to  get  a  record  for  the  full 
30  seconds.  The  usual  order  was  to  take  the  right-hand 
record  first.  Occasionally,  however,  apparatus  or  other 
difficulty  seemed  to  make  it  advisable  to  take  a  second 


^In    certain    tests    a    Jacquet    chronometer    was    substituted    for    the 
seconds  pendulum. 


46  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

record  with  one  of  the  hands  or  both.  The  score  is  the 
number  of  taps  recorded  in  30  seconds.  The  results  in 
the  tables  are  averages  of  records  taken  on  two  different 
days,  except  in  the  cases  of  C2,  C3,  and  C4.  For  the 
first  two  of  these,  only  one  record  is  given ;  for  C4  the 
results  are  the  averages  of  three  records. 

40.  Steadiness  of  Motor  Control:  Involuntary  Move- 
ment. The  steadiness  test  utilized  the  brass  plate  rec- 
ommended by  Whipple  (Manual,  pp.  155ff.)  The  rec- 
ord was  made  by  means  of  a  seconds  pendulum  (or 
Jacquet  chronometer),  double  time-marker,  kymograph 
and  smoked  paper,  and  electrical  accessories.  The  ap- 
paratus and  method  were  explained  and  illustrated  to 
the  subject,  and  he  was  allowed  to  try  the  needle  before 
making  the  record.  The  subject  was  seated  before  the 
instrument.  Difficulty  was  experienced  in  getting  some 
subjects  to  assume  a  position  with  the  angle  between  the 
forearm  and  upper  arm  the  same  as  that  recommended 
by  Whipple,  and  it  was  thought  best  not  to  insist  on  this 
point.  The  subject  was  instructed  to  insert  the  needle 
into  the  hole  and  as  far  as  possible  to  hold  it  so  that  it 
would  not  touch  the  sides  of  the  hole.  Each  time  the  needle 
touched  the  side  of  the  hole,  the  contact  completed  a  cir- 
cuit which  actuated  one  arm  of  the  marker.  In  the  case 
of  adults  and  high-school  students,  records  were  obtained 
for  Holes  8  and  9,  the  last  two  in  the  series.  In  the  case 
of  the  children,  records  were  made  in  the  first  sitting 
for  Holes,  6,  7,  and  8,  and  in  the  second  for  Holes  7  and 
8.  Usually  the  subject  was  allowed  to  hold  the  position 
a  little  longer  than  15  seconds  in  order  to  assure  a  good 
record  of  at  least  that  length.  Eight  and  left  hands  were 
tested  alternately.  The  steadiness  tests,  except  in  the 
case  of  C2  and  C3,  were  repeated  on  a  different  day. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS  47 

For  C2  we  have  but  one  record ;  for  C3  a  partial  second 
record  was  made  in  the  same  sitting.  The  tests  were 
given  in  the  same  periods  as  the  tapping  tests.  In  the 
first  series,  the  steadiness  tests  were  preceded  by  tapping 
tests  and  in  the  second  series  the  steadiness  tests  were 
given  first.  The  score  is  the  number  of  contacts  in  15 
seconds.  In  case  of  long  continued  contacts  the  number 
of  contacts  which  would  have  occurred  in  the  same  period 
was  estimated  from  other  parts  of  the  record. 

41.  Aiming.     The  aiming  test  was  given  substan- 
tially as  described  by  Whipple  (Manual,  pp.  147ff.)     In 
this  test  the  subject  attempts  to  hit  with  a  pencil  by  full- 
arm  strokes  the  intersections  of  a  series  of  crosses  on  a 
target  paper.     The  target  is  mounted  on  a  suitable  base- 
board at  about  the  height  of  the  shoulder  and  at  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  a  full-arm  length.     Three  attempts  are 
made  to  strike  each  of  ten  points.     The  score  is  the  aver- 
age  distance    (in  millimeters)    between  the   30   marks 
where  the  pencil  strikes  and  the  points  at  which  the  sub- 
ject aims.     In  our  work,  except  for  a  left-handed  sub- 
ject, the  right  hand  was  tested  first. 

42.  Strength  of  Grip.     The  strength  of  grip  was 
measured  for  each  hand.     The  improved  form  of  Smed- 
ley's  dynamometer  sold  by  the  C.  H.  Stoelting  Company 
was  used.     Three  trials  were  made  with  each  hand  alter- 
nately.    The  score    (in  kilograms)    is  the  best  record 
made  in  the  three  trials. 

43.  Weight.     The  children  were  weighed  in  their 
ordinary  clothing.     The  weight  is  expressed  in  pounds. 

VIII.     Tests  of  Handwriting  and  Draiving 

44.  Handwriting.     A  sample  of  handwriting  was 
taken  by  having  the  subject  write  from  memory   (or 


48  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

from  copy  in  case  he  needed  to  refer  to  it)  the  first 
stanza  of  "My  Country  'tis  of  Thee."  The  subject 
wrote  for  two  minutes,  and  repeated  the  stanza  if  nec- 
essary to  fill  out  the  time.  It  was  explained  to  him 
that  the  test  was  one  both  of  speed  and  quality.  The 
samples  thus  secured  were  marked  by  means  of  the 
Ay  res  scale  by  four  judges.23  The  final  score  is  the 
average  of  the  four  marks. 

45.  Drawing.  Our  knowledge  of  the  drawing 
ability  of  the  subjects  (except  those  of  the  academy 
group)  is  based  in  part  upon  statements  of  teachers  and 
supervisors  who  have  had  intimate  acquaintance  with 
their  work,  and  in  part  upon  certain  work  which  they 
have  done  for  us — particularly  the  results  of  two  draw- 
ing tests.  One  of  the  tests  was  the  drawing  of  a  horse 
from  memory,  and  the  other  was  the  drawing  of  a  little 
wooden  cart  from  the  object.  Five  minutes  were  allowed 
for  each  drawing,  and  the  subject  was  informed  when 
three  minutes  had  gone.  The  drawings  produced  were 
marked  independently  by  four  judges.24  The  marks 
were  assigned  on  the  basis  of  the  Thorndike  scale.  The 
final  score  is  the  average  of  the  four  marks. 


^The  judges  were  Miss  Frances  Mapel,  Miss  Margaret  Doherty,  Miss 
Genevieve  Coy,  and  the  author. 

24The  judges  were  Miss  Harriett  Berninger,  Miss  Dora  Keen,  Miss 
Frances  Mapel,  and  Miss  Margaret  Doherty,  advanced  students  in  Educa- 
tion at  the  University  of  Illinois. 


CHAPTER  V 

RESULTS  OF  TESTS 
General  Considerations 

In  presenting  the  numerical  results  of  the  tests  it  is 
desirable  to  indicate  not  only  the  score  of  an  individual 
as  expressed  in  the  units  peculiar  to  the  test,  but  also 
his  standing  with  reference  to  a  large  number  of  indi- 
viduals with  whom  the  person  tested  is  fairly  comparable. 
In  this  particular  study  it  is  further  desirable  that  the 
persons  who  are  talented  in  drawing  be  compared  with 
others  who  have  not  such  talent  or  at  least  with  persons 
who  have  no  more  talent  for  drawing  than  would  be  ex- 
pected in  an  unselected  group.  In  the  interpretation  of 
individual  scores  a  comparative  representation  of  the 
scores  is  more  important  than  the  scores  themselves.  It 
is  more  important,  for  example,  to  know  that  a  given 
individual  is  exceeded  in  general  intelligence  by  only 
ten  persons  in  a  hundred  of  the  general  population  than 
merely  to  know  that  his  intelligence  quotient  is  115, 
Such  is  the  ideal  method  of  representation,  and  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  the  comparative  data  available  for  this 
study  are  not  sufficient  for  executing  the  plan  in  all  the 
results.  We  have  tried,  however,  to  utilize  the  data  that 
were  at  hand,  and  we  have  even  gone  aside  from  the  in- 
dividual study  with  which  we  started  in  order  to  supply 
certain  others.  It  must  be  understood  that  the  compar- 
ative data  which  we  present  are  not  submitted  for 
"standards"  in  the  various  tests.  Furthermore,  our 
use  of  "approximate  percentiles"  of  distribution,  will 
not  be  thought  unwarranted  when  it  is  considered  that 

49 


50  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

the  limitations  of  the  data  are  understood  and  that  we 
are  interested  in  setting  forth  a  method  as  well  as  in 
giving  actual  results. 

In  this  chapter  will  be  included  both  the  results  of 
the  tests  upon  the  subjects  and  the  general  scores  with 
which  they  are  compared.  It  has  been  possible  in  some 
cases  to  indicate  roughly  the  percentile  which  the  indi- 
vidual score  represents  in  a  comparative  distribution. 
In  other  instances  the  background  available  has  been  less 
extensive,  and  the  standing  of  the  individual  with  refer- 
ence to  the  median  or  average  is  represented.  Finally, 
there  are  some  tests  in  which  the  members  of  the  test 
group  are  compared  only  with  each  other. 

The  results  will  be  presented  in  three  sections:  (1) 
the  academy  group,  (2)  the  laboratory  and  miscellaneous 
group,  and  (3)  the  elementary  group.  Explanations 
of  the  scores,  the  methods  of  representation,  and  other 
details  of  the  presentation  will  be  cumulative,  and  many 
of  them  may  be  omitted  or  abbreviated  in  the  later 
sections. 

The  numbers  of  the  tests  in  the  several  tables  are  the 
same  as  those  given  in  Chapter  IV. 

I.     The  Academy  Group 

As  explained  in  Chapter  III,  S7  and  88  are  members 
of  a  group  of  32  cadets  to  whom  a  number  of  different 
tests  were  given.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  compare 
the  performances  of  S7  and  88  with  those  of  the  other 
members  of  the  group.  For  this  comparison  we  have 
chosen  the  30  highest  scores  in  each  test,  the  results  of 
which  we  are  reproducing.  (In  a  few  cases  one  or  two 
of  the  32  scores  were  rejected  or  were  missing  on  account 
of  the  tests  being  incomplete,  or  for  other  reason.)  A 


EESULTS  OF  TESTS  51 

tabulation  of  scores  was  then  made  by  taking  the  score 
third  from  the  poorest  (Rank  28)  and  every  third  score 
following,  up  to  that  of  the  person  ranking  fourth  in 
the  given  test.  These  scores  we  have  called  "approxi- 
mate percentiles. ' '  They  are  exhibited  in  Table  1.  They 
furnish  a  convenient  background  for  a  rough  representa- 
tion of  the  standing  of  our  two  subjects  in  the  various 
tests.  Later  also  some  of  these  distributions  will  be  used 
for  a  comparison  with  scores  of  members  of  other  groups. 
To  find  the  comparative  standing  of  a  given  individual 
score  it  is  necessary  only  to  find  where  it  belongs  in  the 
distribution.  Thus,  if  the  individual  score  is  35  and 
we  find  that  the  approximate  40th  percentile  and  50th 
percentile  are  34  and  36,  respectively,  the  individual 
score  may  be  represented  for  our  purpose  as  lying  at 
the  45th  percentile.  This  means  roughly  that  the  indi- 
vidual score  is  as  high  as  any  score  obtained  by  the  45 
per  cent  of  the  subjects  who  stood  lowest  in  the  test. 

Scores  of  the  four  tests  in  Table  1  which  are  marked 
with  an  asterisk  have  been  "corrected  to  a  senior  basis." 
As  mentioned  previously,  the  cadets  tested  were  mem- 
bers of  different  classes  and  differed  in  age.  The  num- 
ber in  the  whole  group,  however,  seemed  too  small  to 
attempt  a  classification  by  classes  or  by  ages.  At  the 
same  time  it  seemed  highly  desirable  to  make  some 
allowance  for  differences  in  age  and  advancement.  For 
most  of  the  tests,  data  for  this  correction  were  lacking, 
but  in  four  of  them  a  correction  was  possible  on  the 
basis  of  data  which  had  come  into  the  possession  of  the 
laboratory  from  a  series  of  tests  given  by  Dr.  W.  S. 
Miller  in  the  Urbana  High  School.  By  means  of  these 
data,  the  scores  of  cadets  in  classes  lower  than  the  senior 


TABLE  1 

APPROXIMATE  PEECENTILES  OF  SCOEES  OF 
30  CADETS 


OO>       rH  rH  (N  O  iH  W5  IO  CO  CO 


\n  co     oq  co     p  10 

rHCirHWCMTflOOrHOrHCM'lO^aoCMt-^O 
U5  rH  CO  CO  T}(  CO  rH        rH  N  CM  Oi  iH  T*  ift  t- 00 
CMCMrH  rH 


CO  00  OJ        pOO        N 

10  H  U5  CO  CM  O  <N  CM  <N  OS  rH  T 


^t>Tl<CMrJ<COOrHOiCOOSOOOlCOSOSO 
^1  rH  U5  t>  O  iH  Tj(  CNlNOOrH-^TfllOTfl 


CM  O        rjj  00        00 

CM  I-  00*  t-  M  Tj(  CO  i-i  00  OS  r-1  O  CO  (M  l>  IR  CO 


CO  O5       CO  O 


CO«5  O5        Tj|CO        OS 

CO  rH  CO  00  O  O5  TH  IO  CO  CO  ••*  CO  ^  CO  rH 

rHCOCM  rHCM 


W  00        Or-}        00 

t>  TH  irj  co  coioco    'co^'oo'ooiflioioco 

CO  rH  CO  OS  CM  rH  CO      lO  CO  CO  »O  CO  CO  CO  ^ 


•^          »4   M  "5  x 

Si  fl  fl  'S  ^      «  ^  fl 


&£<    .    .  bo        .    .    .    . 

CMCOTJ<OrH  U5CO^-'^OC\I^'       OSOCOOO 
COCO  OSrHTHTHrH         rH  CM  (M  CM 


s^ 


- 

s« 

S  x 


3.5  o 

^05 


s 


The  numbers 
Scores  corre< 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  53 

class  were  increased  to  what  they  presumably  would  be, 
if  the  cadets  at  the  time  had  been  seniors. 

The  records  of  our  subjects  87  and  88  in  the  several 
tests  are  exhibited  in  Table  2.  Both  the  scores  in  units 
peculiar  to  each  test  and  the  approximate  percentiles 
which  these  represent  in  the  general  distribution  (Table 
1)  are  presented. 

TABLE  2 

THE   SCORES   OF  £7   AND   S8   IN  VARIOUS   TESTS  AND   COMPAR- 
ISONS OF  THEIR  SCORES  WITH  THE   SCORES  OF  30  CADETS 

S7  S8 


Tests  Score  Approximate  Score  Approximate 

Percentile  Percentile 


No.* 

Name 

2. 

Word    Building** 

42 

50 

45 

62 

3. 

Trabue  J  and  K 

17 

55 

17 

55 

4. 

Winch's  Story 

.   74.5 

95 

55.6 

63 

30. 

Reading   Forward 

60 

93 

80 

40 

31. 

Reading  Backward 

260 

84 

116 

14 

5. 

Opposites 

324 

56 

373 

40 

6. 

Analogies  C  ** 

211 

30 

118 

80 

9(b) 

Easy  Directions 

.95 

40 

.93 

35 

Kf) 

Fables 

9 

65 

8 

50 

10. 

(Proverbs 

54 

20 

51 

28 

12. 

Reasoning 

37 

25 

49 

5 

Kg) 

Code 

20 

10 

100 

90 

19. 

Marble   Statue** 

46 

65 

48.5 

80 

20. 

Dutch  Homestead** 

42 

33 

52 

80 

26. 

Substitution 

136 

23 

123 

7 

28. 

Mirror  Drawing  (R.H.) 

204 

33 

210 

30 

Average   16   tests 

49 

47 

*The  numbers  of  the  -tests  are  the  same  as  those  used  in  Chapter  IV. 

**Scores  in  these  tests  "corrected  to  senior  basis." 

The  table  should  be  read  in  this  way:  In  the  Marble  Statue  test,  £7 
made  a  score  of  46  (ideas  reproduced).  This  is  a  score  beyond  which 
65%  of  the  group  (30  cadets)  did  not  go;  or,  inversely,  this  is  a  score 
exceeded  by  only  35%  (100-65)  of  the  group. 

The  data  for  the  percentile  column  were  obtained  by  a  comparison  of 
the  scores  with  those  recorded  in  Table  1. 

//.     Laboratory  and  Miscellaneous  Groups 

The  first  part  of  the  numerical  results  of  the  tests 
which  were  applied  to  the  individuals  in  the  laboratory 
group  and  in  the  miscellaneous  group  will  be  presented 
in  tabular  form  similar  to  that  which  has  been  used  for 


54  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

the  academy  group.  It  is  desirable  to  compare  each 
individual  with  others  of  similar  age  and  advancement. 
In  some  case  it  has  been  possible  to  submit  different 
backgrounds  in  partial  satisfaction  of  this  principle;  in 
other  cases  only  one  background  has  been  available  for 
all.  The  array  of  approximate  percentiles  with  which 
the  individual  scores  are  to  be  compared  is  given  in 
Table  3.  The  numbers  of  the  tests  which  are  given  below 
are  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  description  of  the  tests 
in  Chapter  IV.  The  sources  of  the  scores  are  indicated 
below. 

(1)  Binet.     The  distribution  of  percentiles  is  pre- 
pared from  data  given  by  Terman.1 

(2)  Word  Building,    (6)    Analogies,    (19)    Marble 
Statue,  and  (32)  Cancellation  of  7's.     The  per- 
centile  distributions  in  these  tests  were  obtained 
by  Dr.  W..  S.  Miller  from  tests  given  in  the 
Urbana  High  School. 

(3)  Trabue  J  and  K,   (9)   Easy  Directions,   (12) 
Tliurstone  Reasoning,  (1-g)  Code  (for  compar- 
ison  with   records   of  high   school   students), 
(26)  TJiur stone  Substitution,  and  (28)  Mirror 
Drawing  (right  hand).     Data  are  the  same  as 
exhibited  in  Table  1. 

(7)  Ink-Blots.     Percentiles     are     prepared     from 
scores  of  15  persons :    our  six  high-school  sub- 
jects and  nine  university  students,  including 
Cl. 

(8)  Pictorial  Imagination.     Percentiles  are  based 
upon  16   scores.     These  scores  were  obtained 
from  tests  given  to  seven  adults,  our  six  high- 
school  subjects,  and  Cl,  C4,  and  C5. 


1Terman,  L.  M.     The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,   1916,  p.   78. 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  55 

(13)  TJiur stone  Hand.     Scores  from  14  university 
students,  including  Cl  and  C2,  were  used  for 
the  percentiles. 

(14)  Thurstone  Spatial  Relations.     The  percentiles 
are   based   upon    results   from   15    university 
students,  including  Cl,  C2,  and  C3. 

(16)  Painted  Cube.     The  scores  used  for  the  per- 
centiles are  those  of  13  university  students,  in- 
cluding Cl,  C2,  and  C3. 

(1-g)  Code  (for  college  students).  Eesults  from  12 
university  students,  including  Cl,  form  the 
basis  for  the  percentile  distribution.  The  test 
was  given  as  a  group  test  to  10  of  the  persons. 
In  the  group  test  the  code  was  displayed  on  the 
blackboard. 

(17)  Thorndike    Test    of    Aesthetic    Appreciation. 
The  percentiles  are  based  upon  results  from  14 
university    students,    including    Cl    and    C2. 
Mimeographed  reproductions  of  the  first  five 
of    Professor    Thorndike's    seven    series    were 
used. 

(18)  Illinois  Test  of  Aesthetic  Judgment.     The  per- 
centiles are  based  upon  the  scores  of  19  per- 
sons, including  our  six  high-school  subjects,  and 
Cl,  C3,  C4,  and  C5.     One  additional  person  of 
the  19  is  a  high-school  student,  and  the  remain- 
ing nine  are  adults. 

(27)  Perceptual  Learning.  The  percentiles  are 
based  upon  results  from  19  members  of  the 
fortnightly  conference  of  the  Department  of 
Education,  to  whom  the  test  was  given  as  a 


56  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

group  test.2  For  this  purpose  the  smaller 
figures  which  were  used  in  the  individual  test- 
ing were  carefully  enlarged.  Care  was  taken 
in  the  enlargement  to  have  the  angles  between 
lines  and  the  relative  length  of  lines  approxi- 
mately the  same  as  in  the  smaller  figures.  The 
curvature  of  the  curved  lines  was  increased  a 
little  in  order  to  facilitate  recognition  of  the 
curvature  at  a  distance.  The  time  of  exposure 
was  the  same  as  for  the  individual  tests.  We 
have  no  means  of  estimating  the  difference  in 
performance  which  may  be  due  to  the  giving 
of  the  test  in  one  case  by  the  group  method  and 
in  the  other  by  the  individual  method. 

(33)  Rossolimo  Observation.  The  percentiles  are 
based  upon  scores  from  12  persons,  including 
our  six  high-school  subjects,  Cl,  C4,  C5,  and 
three  other  adults. 

(45)  Drawing.  The  percentiles  in  the  drawing 
tests  are  based  upon  results  from  16  students 
in  a  class  in  education,  to  whom  the  tests  were 
given  as  a  group  exercise.  C2  was  a  member 
of  this  class.  The  drawings  were  marked  by 
the  same  four  judges  who  marked  the  drawings 
of  the  members  of  the  test  groups.3 


2Through  an  error  the  simplest  figure  (four  lines)  was  exposed  upside 
down  (this  position  was  preserved  in  later  group  tests  also),  but,  on  ac- 
count of  the  simplicity  of  the  figure  and  the  small  change  introduced,  the 
results  may  still  be  regarded  as  comparable  to  those  of  the  individual  testing. 

3The  tests  just  mentioned,  beginning  with  the  ink-bolts  and  continuing 
through  the  list,  were  all  given  by,  or  under  the  immediate  supervision 
of,  the  author — with  the  exception  of  the  Illinois  test  of  aesthetic  judgment, 
in  which  case  the  technique  is  simple.  This  test  was  given  to  one  person, 
whose  performance  is  included  in  the  values  used,  by  Miss  Florence  Boeh- 
mer,  and  to  two  others  by  Miss  Margaret  Doherty. 


EESULTS  OF  TESTS 


57 


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EESULTS  OF  TESTS  61 

Table  4  presents  the  scores  of  the  members  of  the 
laboratory  group  and  of  the  miscellaneous  group,  in  the 
tests  for  which  comparative  results  were  given  in  Table 
3.  The  representation  is  similar  to  that  used  in  Table  2. 

Total  performance  in  the  Binet  tests  is  indicated  in 
terms  of  the  intelligence  quotient  in  Table  4.  In  Table 
5  are  given  the  results  of  certain  selected  tests  of  the 
series.  The  numbering  of  these  tests  is  made  to  conform 
with  that  used  in  their  description  in  Chapter  IV. 

The  results  of  the  analogies  test,  List  C,  were  given 
in  Table  4.  The  results  for  Lists  A,  B,  and  C,  are  ex- 
hibited in  Table  6. 

TABLE  6 
RESULTS  ANALOGIES  TESTS 

Subjects  List  A  List  B  List  C  Devia- 

< Total     tion 

Time  Failures     Time  Failures     Time  Failures     Time     from 

Mean 


SI 

3.1 

0 

4.5 

0 

10.0 

3 

17.6 

-1.2 

S2 

3.4 

0 

6.1 

2 

11.5 

5 

21.0 

-4.6 

S3 

2.4 

0 

2.5 

0 

5.5 

1 

10.4 

6.4 

S4 

3.7 

0 

2.9 

0 

5.0 

0 

11.6 

4.8 

S5 

2.8 

0 

3.9 

0 

8.4 

3 

15.1 

1.3 

S6 

1.9 

0 

5.6 

0 

14.3 

4 

21.8 

-5.4 

Cl 

8.1 

3 

C4 

4.5 

1 

5.2 

1 

14.4 

5 

24.1 

-7.7 

C5 

2.8 

0 

2.9 

0 

4.0 

0 

9.7 

6.7 

Mean 

16.4 

4.8 

The  timens  in  seconds  and  indicates  the  average  time 
for  each  of  20  responses.  "  Failures  "  indicate  the  num- 
ber of  stimulus  cards  to  which  no  correct  response  was 
given  in  30  seconds. 

Deviations  are  computed  from  the  mean  total  time 
(16.4  sec.)  for  this  group.  A  minus  deviation  indicates 
a  performance  poorer  than  the  mean. 

In  Table  7  are  exhibited  scores  in  a  number  of  tests 
in  which  we  have  lacked  an  adequate  background  of 


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KESULTS  OF  TESTS 


63 


TABLE  8 

SCORES  IN  MOTOR  TESTS  AND  COMPARISONS  OF  THESE  SCORES 
WITH  AVERAGES  OR  MEDIANS 


Age1                ^Strength  of  Grip 
(kg.) 

39Tapping 
(No.  Taps  in  30  Seconds) 

Score3        Standard 
Avg. 
Pyle2 

Devia- 
tions 
from 

Score 

Standard 
Avg. 
Pyle2 

Devia- 
tions, 
from 

Avg. 

Avg. 

R        L        R 

L 

R 

L 

R 

L 

R 

L 

R 

L 

SI 

19 

34.4   29.9   28.9 

26.94 

5.5 

3.0 

203 

163 

190 

180 

13 

-17 

S2 

17 

50.4  44.0  44.0 

42.3 

6.4 

1.7 

211 

186 

198 

176 

13 

10 

S3 

16 

35.7   31.0   27.4 

26.1 

8.3 

4.9 

182 

174 

187 

163 

-5 

13 

84 

18 

52.1   50.1   44.2 

42.7 

7.9 

7.4 

179 

192 

208 

179 

-29 

13 

85 

17 

33.2   25.1   27.2 

25.5 

6.0 

-.4 

227 

176 

193 

172 

34 

4 

S6 

18 

32.0   25.0   28.0 

26.3 

4.0 

-1.3 

192 

173 

193 

172 

-1 

1 

Cl 

A4 

37.0  28.0   28.9 

26.9 

8.1 

1.9 

184 

168 

190 

180 

-6 

-12 

C2 

A 

55.5   48.5  48.3 

46.1 

7.2 

2.4 

212 

185 

206 

200 

6 

-15 

JGS 

A 

48.3 

46.1 

180 

189 

206 

200 

-26 

-11 

C4 

A 

28.5   28.0  28.9 

26.9 

-.4 

1.1 

190 

164 

190 

180 

0 

-16 

C5 

A 

31.0   29.1   28.9 

26.9 

2.1 

2.2 

218 

192 

190 

180 

28 

12 

TABLE  8   (Continued) 


Age1 

^Steadiness 
(No.  Contacts  15  i 

sec.) 

"Aiming 
(Deviation  in  !/io  mm.) 

Score 

Deviations 

Score 

Deviations 

from  Median 

from  Median 

R 

L 

R 

L 

R 

L 

R 

L 

SI                 19 

40 

60 

-8 

0 

68 

76 

-12 

-12 

S2                 17 

66 

76 

-34 

-16 

46 

66 

10 

-2 

S3                  16 

32 

42 

0 

18 

65 

73 

-9 

-9 

X4                  18 

57 

54 

-25 

6 

40 

49 

16 

15 

S5                  17 

76 

74 

-44 

-14 

49 

70 

7 

-6 

S6                  18 

43 

68 

-11 

-8 

64 

90 

-8 

-26 

Cl                 A 

34 

70 

—2 

-10 

46 

78 

10 

-14 

C2                 A 

25 

48 

7 

12 

61 

75 

-5 

-11 

C3                 A 

27 

38 

5 

24 

61 

59 

-5 

5 

C4                  A 

90 

76 

-58 

-16 

48 

50 

8 

14 

C5                  A 

11 

13 

21 

47 

41 

51 

15 

13 

Third  Quartile 

25 

38 

51 

59 

Median  (Steadiness  9 

adults, 

Aiming  11  adults) 

32 

60 

56 

64 

First  Quartile 

53 

80 

61 

71 

JAges  last  birthday  preceding  December  31,   1916. 

-Pyle,  W.  H.  A  Manual  for  the  Mental  and  Physical  Examination  of 
School  Children.  University  of  Missouri,  Bulletin,  17:  1916,  No.  24, 
pp.  24f. 

8R,  right  hand;  L,  left  hand. 

4Adult. 

Read  the  table  as  follows:  Si,  19  years  of  age,  made  scores  of  34.4 
kilograms  and  29.9  kilograms  with  the  right  and  left  hands,  respectively, 
in  the  test  for  strength  of  grip  (test  number  42  in  Chapter  IV).  The 
standard  scores  as  given  by  Pyle  for  female  adults  are  28.9  and  26.9 
respectively.  Si's  scores  are  5.5  and  3.0,  respectively,  better  than  the 
standard  scores.  In  the  steadiness  tests,  Si's  scores  are  40  and  60 
respectively.  The  median  scores  for  9  adults  are  32  and  60,  respectively 
(below  body  of  table).  The  right-hand  score  of  Si  is  8  poorer  than  the 
median,  and  the  left-hand  score  is  just  equal  to  the  median. 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


TABLE  9 

SCORES  IN  MIRROR  DRAWING  AND  DEVIATIONS  OF 
SCORES  FROM  THE  MEANS  OF  THE  GROUP 


THESE 


Subjects 

Right  Hand 
Score    Dev.  from 
Mean 

Left  Hand 
Score    Dev.  from 
Mean 

Sum  (R  and  L) 
Score    Dev.  from 
Mean 

SI 

53 

30 

37 

13 

90 

43 

S2 

147 

-64 

92 

-42 

239 

-106 

S3 

40 

43 

37 

13 

77 

56 

84 

70 

13 

40 

10 

110 

23 

85 

67 

16 

42 

8 

109 

24 

S6 

91 

-8 

65 

-15 

156 

-23 

Cl 

75 

8 

51 

-1 

126 

7 

C4 

126 

-43 

43 

7 

169 

-36 

C5 

78 

5 

45 

5 

123 

10 

Mean 

83 

26 

50 

13 

133 

36 

The  table  should  be  read  as  follows:  In  the  mirror  drawing  test, 
SI  made  scores  of  53  and  37  with  the  right  and  left  hands,  respectively. 
The  sum  of  these  scores  is  90.  The  means  for  the  group  are  83,  50,  and 
133,  respectively.  The  scores  of  Si  are  30,  13,  and  43,  respectively,  better 
than  the  mean  scores. 


TABLE  10 
RESULTS,  BETTS  QUESTIONARY 

Score   represents   per    cent    of   images    in    each   modality    reported    as 
belonging  to  the  various  degrees  of  vividness. 


Imagery 
Degrees  SI 

S2 

S3 

84 

S5 

S6 

C2 

C4 

C5 

Betts1 

Visual 

1 

6 

0 

44 

59 

53 

59 

78 

9 

75 

18 

2 

31 

19 

28 

41 

31 

13 

9 

72 

19 

38 

3 

28 

41 

25 

0 

9 

19 

13 

16 

6 

23 

4 

9 

34 

3 

0 

0 

3 

0 

3 

0 

10 

5 

9 

0 

0 

0 

6 

6 

0 

0 

0 

6 

6 

9 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

7 

6 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

Auditory 

1 

0 

0 

45 

10 

90 

60 

80 

25 

60 

21 

2 

15 

45 

40 

55 

10 

0 

10 

55 

10 

35 

3 

35 

25 

10 

30 

0 

35 

10 

10 

20 

21 

4 

15 

20 

5 

5 

0 

5 

0 

5 

5 

14 

5 

20 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5 

4 

6 

10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

7 

5 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

5 

0 

3 

Kinaesthetic 

1 

0 

0 

55 

10 

50 

20 

0 

0 

30 

23 

2 

0 

15 

20 

45 

5 

0 

0 

40 

35 

29 

3 

20 

50 

25 

40 

25 

35 

45 

55 

35 

23 

4 

40 

35 

0 

5 

5 

0 

20 

0 

0 

14 

5 

20 

0 

0 

0 

5 

45 

10 

0 

0 

7 

6 

15 

0 

0 

0 

10 

0 

10 

5 

0 

2 

7 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

15 

0 

0 

2 

J34  College  Seniors. 
Mental  Imagery,   1909. 


Betts,  G.  H.     The  Distribution  and  Function  of 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  65 

comparative  results.  The  scores  of  the  subjects  have 
been  for  the  most  part  compared  only  with  each  other. 
The  means  of  the  scores  and  deviations  from  the 
means  are  indicated. 

The  scores  in  four  motor  tests  are  given  in  Table  8. 
In  the  case  of  steadiness  and  aiming  we  are  able  to  give 
for  comparison  the  first  quartile,  median,  and  third 
quartile  of  the  scores  made  by  members  of  a  class  in 
Mental  Tests.  Deviations  from  the  median  have  been 
calculated  for  each  individual.  The  standards  for  the 
tapping  and  strength-of-grip  tests  are  taken  from  Pyle.4 

The  results  of  the  mirror  drawing  test  are  shown  in 
Table  9.  The  members  of  the  group  are  compared  with 
each  other.  A  comparison  of  right-hand  mirror  draw- 
ing with  the  Culver  results  is  made  in  Table  4. 

The  numerical  results  secured  from  the  application 
of  the  Betts  questionary  for  imagery  are  given  in  Tables 
10  and  11.  They  are  compared  with  the  results  obtained 
by  Betts  from  34  college  seniors. 

In  addition  to  the  results  presented  in  the  tables,  the 
following  individual  scores  may  be  presented. 

The  score  of  Cl  in  the  " Cicero"  test  for  logical 
memory  is  49.  This  is  better  than  any  score  reported  for 
36  college  students  by  Whipple.  (See  Manual,  page 
577.) 

The  score  of  C3  in  the  "Dutch  Homestead "  test  for 
logical  memory  is  23.  This  places  him  very  low  in  the 
lowest  ten  per  cent  of  the  Culver  group.  (See  Table  1.) 


4Pyle,  W.  H.  A  Manual  for  the  Mental  and  Physical  Examination  of 
School  Children.  University  of  Missouri  Bulletin,  Vol.  17,  1916,  No.  24, 
pp.  24f. 


66 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


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EESULTS  OF  TESTS  67 

777.     The  Elementary  Group 

The  numerical  results  of  the  tests  given  to  the  ele- 
mentary group  are  exhibited  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
which  has  been  used  in  the  preceding  sections  of  this 
chapter. 

Table  12  and  13  exhibit  the  results  of  a  number  of 
tests  in  which  it  has  been  possible  to  arrange  for  com- 
parison a  distribution  of  "approximate  percentiles. ' ' 
Results  from  fifth-grade  children  are  given  in  Table  12, 
and  results  from  sixth-grade  children  in  Table  13.  The 
scores  for  the  tests  where  the  number  of  cases  reported 
exceeds  16  are  those  of  pupils  in  all  of  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grades  of  the  Leal  school.  The  scores  for  the  Thorndike 
aesthetic  appreciation  test  and  the  perceptual  learning 
test  were  made  by  pupils  in  a  single  room,  a  room  in 
which  all  of  the  pupils,  with  one  exception,  have  intelli- 
gence quotients  greater  than  100.  The  scores  for  the 
code  test  were  taken  from  the  results  of  the  regular  Binet 
tests  on  the  same  group  with  the  addition  of  a  few  chil- 
dren from  other  rooms.  Percentiles  for  the  cancellation 
tests  are  calculated  from  results  of  tests  given  to  unse- 
lected  fifth-  and  sixth-grade  children.  The  perceptual 
learning  test  was  given  as  a  group  test  both  to  the  exper- 
imental group  and  to  the  comparative  group.  Enlarge- 
ments of  the  figures  were  used  in  the  way  that  has  been 
described  for  the  laboratory  group. 

Table  14  presents  the  scores,  in  the  tests  named  in 
Tables  12  and  13,  of  the  elementary-school  pupils  who 
are  subjects  of  this  study.  The  scores  are  given  in  the 
units  peculiar  to  each  test  and  in  percentiles  which  these 
scores  represent  in  the  distributions  of  Tables  12  and  13. 
In  addition,  the  standing  (in  general  work,  in  handwrit- 
ing, and  in  drawing)  of  each  of  the  subjects,  in  relation 


68  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

TABLE   12 

COMPARATIVE     SCORES    IN    APPROXIMATE    PERCENTILES    FOR 
FIFTH  GRADE 


Tests                               Cases 

iPercentiles 

No. 

Name 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

1. 

Binet  I.   Q. 

85 

90 

94 

97 

100 

103 

106 

110 

115 

2. 

Word    Building 

61 

13 

15 

16 

17 

20 

21 

23 

25 

29 

3. 

Trabue,  B  and  C 

61 

17 

21 

22 

23 

23 

25 

25 

27 

29 

10. 

Proverbs 

59 

296 

222 

192 

158 

144 

131 

118 

78 

67 

11. 

Bonser  Reasoning, 

I,  II 

62 

1 

3 

4 

6 

7 

9 

12 

15 

19 

12. 

Thurstone  Reasoning 

69 

-9 

-6 

-5 

-3 

-1 

0 

2 

4 

5 

13. 

Thurstone  Hand 

64 

-24 

-19 

-16 

Q 

-5 

-1 

2 

6 

21 

14.  Spatial  Relations            67  905   215   154   119   111      75     53     36  28 

15.  Punched    Holes               67        23344568  12 
1-g     Code                                     13      85      53      45      42      41      31      25      23  22 
17.     Th.  Aesthetic  Appre- 
ciation                           15     37     34     30     28     26     26     22     20  16 

19.     Marble  Statue                 64     22     25     27      29      30     33      35     37  40 

22.     Lincoln,  Immediate       67      18      19     20     22     23     25     26     27  29 

22.     Lincoln,   Deferred          62      13      15     16     16     17      19     20     22  25 

27.     Perceptual    Learning    16     68     61     59     57      54     51     50     49  42 
32.     Cancellation, 

Triangles                        14     23      28      32      33      34      36      37     41  47 

32.     Cancellation,    7's             15     30     35     37     45     51     59     64     70  79 
45.     Drawing,  Horse              63        3.1    3.6    4.4    5.4    5.6    6.0    6.4    6.9    7.6 

45.     Drawing,  Cart 62        3.2    4.2    5.7    6.1    6.4    6.7    7.0    7.6    8.3 

Read  this  table  in  the  way  that  Table  3  is  read. 

TABLE  13 

COMPARATIVE     SCORES    IN    APPROXIMATE    PERCENTILES  FOR 
SIXTH  GRADE 


Tests 

No. 

Cases 

iPercentiles 

No. 

Name 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

1. 

Binet  I.  Q. 

85 

90 

94 

97 

100  103   106  110 

115 

2. 

Word   Building 

71 

14 

16 

18 

21 

23 

24 

25 

28 

30 

3. 

Trabue,   B   and   C 

73 

19 

21 

22 

23 

24 

26 

27 

27 

30 

10. 

Proverbs 

67 

244 

176   146   124 

112  101 

84 

68 

55 

11. 

Bonser  Reasoning, 

I,  II 

75 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

13 

16 

20 

24 

12. 

Thurstone    Reasoning 

74 

-9 

-4 

-1 

0 

1 

2 

3 

5 

7 

13. 

Thurstone   Hand 

76 

-21 

-12 

-5 

-2 

2 

5 

8 

14 

17 

14. 

Spatial    Relations 

71 

903 

187   115 

95 

77 

54 

46 

38 

27 

15. 

Punched  Holes 

76 

1 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

17 

1-g 

Code 

14 

100 

54 

48 

44 

33 

31 

28 

25 

22 

17. 

Th.  Aesthetic  Appre- 

ciation 

16 

34 

32 

31 

29 

28 

26 

24 

22 

20 

19. 

Marble  Statue 

75 

24 

27 

29 

31 

33 

34 

36 

39 

41 

22. 

Lincoln,    Immediate 

76 

18 

20 

21 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

29 

22. 

Lincoln,   Deferred 

69 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

21 

22 

23 

26 

27. 

Perceptual    Learning 

16 

67 

64 

61 

52 

48 

41 

38 

35 

33 

32. 

Cancellation, 

Triangles 

15 

32 

34 

35 

38 

38 

39 

41 

44 

47 

32. 

Cancellation,    7's 

15 

36 

47 

49 

50 

51 

54 

56 

59 

63 

45. 

Drawing,  Horse 

73 

3.0    3.4 

4.0 

4.5     5.3 

6.3 

6.9 

8.0    8.6 

45. 

Drawing,  Cart 

73 

4.3     5.3 

5.7 

6. 

1    6.7 

7.0 

7.8 

8. 

3    9.2 

Read  the  table  in  the 

way 

that 

Table 

3  is 

read. 

RESULTS  OF  TESTS  69 

to  other  pupils  of  his  grade  and  teacher,  has  been  re- 
duced to  a  percentile  basis  and  included  in  the  table. 
The  general  school  standing  for  pupils  of  the  fifth  grade 
is  based  upon  the  marks  assigned  to  the  pupils  in  spell- 
ing, reading,  arithmetic,  grammar  or  language,  geog- 
raphy, and  physiology.  The  basis  of  the  school  standing 
in  the  sixth  grade  is  the  same  with  the  omission  of  geog- 
raphy and  the  addition  of  history.  The  marks  used 
were  the  monthly  marks  which  were  available  in  each 
branch  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  school  month.  Approx- 
imate medians  were  taken  for  each  pupil  in  each  subject 


TABLE   14 

SCORES     OF    THE     ELEMENTARY    GROUP,     AND    THE    APPROXI- 
MATE   PERCENTILES   TO   WHICH    THESE    SCORES    CORRE- 
SPOND  IN   THE    GENERAL   DISTRIBUTION   OF 
TABLES   12   AND   13 


El 


E2 


E3 


Tests 


Score  Approx.  Score  Approx.  Score  Approx. 
Percen-  Percen-  Percen- 

tile tile  tile 


1. 

Binet,  I.  Q.                            72.5 

3 

101.4 

55 

91.6 

23 

2. 

Word  Building                       16 

20 

34 

95 

15 

15 

3. 

Trabue,  B  and  C                  22 

30 

21 

20 

17 

6 

10. 

Proverbs,   I,   II,   VI          123 

41 

99 

61 

166 

23 

11. 

Bonser  Reasoning,  I  &  II 

2 

10 

0 

5 

12. 

Thur&tone    Reasoning           1 

50 

3 

70 

-1 

30 

13. 

Thurstone    Hand                    0 

45 

-6 

29 

14 

80 

14. 

Thurstone  Spatial 

Relations                           900 

10 

133 

28 

33 

32 

15. 

Punched   Holes                       2 

15 

6 

60 

5 

50 

1-g 

Code                                        77 

15 

85 

13 

21 

92 

17. 

Th.  Aesthetic  Appreci- 

ation                                   35 

7 

26 

60 

28 

50 

19. 

Marble  Statue                       24 

10 

36 

70 

36 

70 

22. 

Lincoln  &  Pig,  Immediate     22 

35 

25 

60 

26 

70 

22. 

Lincoln  &  Pig,  Deferred  23 

80 

11 

5 

22 

70 

27. 

Perceptual  Learning           56 

36 

43 

57 

40 

63 

32. 

Cancellation  Triangles        41 

70 

44 

80 

44 

80 

32. 

Cancellation  7's                    66 

95 

49 

30 

67 

96 

45. 

Drawing,   Horse                     8.1 

82 

8.9 

95 

10.8 

99 

45. 

Drawing,   Cart                        8.1 

76 

9.5 

93 

8.6 

83 

Drawing    (School   Marks) 

97 

94 

100 

Handwriting 

(School  Marks) 

89 

35 

66 

School   Standing    (Marks) 

5 

56 

5 

Read  the  table  as  Table  4  is  read. 


70 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


TABLE    14    (Continued) 


E4 


E5 


E6 


Tests 


Score  Approx.   Score  Approx     Score  Approx. 
Percen-  Percen-  Percen- 

tile  tile  tile 


1. 

Binet,  I.  Q.                         113.5 

87 

93.9 

30 

121.0 

94 

2. 

Word  Building                      12 

8 

13 

10 

3. 

Trabue,   B  and  C                22 

30 

23 

45 

32 

98 

10. 

Proverbs,  I,  II,  VI           222 

20 

281 

12 

68 

89 

11. 

Bonser   Reasoning  T&II   14 

77 

7 

50 

2 

15 

12. 

Thurstone    Reasoning           0 

60 

0 

60 

-8 

13 

13. 

Thurstone    Hand                  -3 

55 

-24 

10 

-1 

60 

14. 

Thurstone  Spatial 

Relations                             54 

70 

110 

50 

273 

19 

15. 

Punched    Holes                       4 

45 

4 

45 

5 

60 

1-g 

Code                                         29 

63 

(1) 

0 

45 

30 

17. 

Th.  Aesthetic  Appreci- 

ation                                    26 

55 

30 

30 

28 

40 

19. 

Marble   Statue                      29 

40 

35 

70 

42 

95 

22. 

Lincoln  &  Pig,  Immediate  18 

10 

20 

30 

22 

40 

22. 

Lincoln  &  Pig,  Deferred   15 

20 

15 

20 

19 

60 

27. 

Perceptual   Learning          45 

86 

95 

3 

63 

17 

32. 

Cancellation   Triangles        50 

93 

39 

75 

36 

60 

32. 

Cancellation  7's                    70 

80 

70 

80 

46 

42 

45. 

Drawing,    Horse                     6.3 

68 

4.8 

34 

3.3 

12 

45. 

Drawing,    Cart                        6.2 

43 

5.7 

30 

4.6 

23 

Drawing    (School  Marks) 

70 

92 

100 

Handwriting   (School 

Marks) 

21 

75 

75 

School   Standing    (Marks) 

67 

25 

83 

(1)   None  correct. 

Read  the  table  as  Table  4  is  read. 

and  the  sum  of  these  was  used  to  find  the  relative  stand- 
ing of  the  pupil.  The  standing  in  drawing  was  found 
by  comparison  of  the  approximate  medians  of  the  marks 
of  various  pupils.  In  handwriting  a  similar  method  was 
used. 

The  performances  of  our  subjects  in  certain  selected 
tests  of  the  Binet  series  are  represented  in  Table  15. 
Along  with  the  scores  we  have  given  the  highest  year 
in  which  the  test  is  given  and  in  which  the  particular 
score  would  be  counted  as  passing.  If  the  score  given 
would  not  be  counted  as  passing  for  any  age  in  which 
it  is  given,  the  fact  is  indicated  in  a  note. 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS 


71 


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RESULTS  OF  TESTS  73 

In  Table  16  are  given  the  scores  in  several  tests,  to- 
gether with  the  mean  for  the  six  scores  and  the  devia- 
tion of  each  from  the  mean. 

The  scores  in  six  motor  tests  are  exhibited  in  Tables 
17  and  18.  In  the  first  of  these  the  scores  in  strength  of 
grip,  speed  of  tapping,  and  weight  are  compared  with 
standard  averages  as  given  by  Pyle.5  The  second  table 
contains  scores  of  steadiness,  aiming,  and  mirror  draw- 
ing. The  scores  from  the  first  tests  of  steadiness  are 
compared  with  other  scores  taken  under  similar  circum- 
stances. These  scores  were  taken  at  the  Leal  school  fol- 
lowing a  test  for  rate  of  tapping.  The  scores  in  the 
second  test  for  steadiness  were  taken  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  University  and  were  not  preceded  by  a  test  for 
rate  of  tapping.  Since  they  are  markedly  less  than  the 
scores  in  the  first  test,  it  was  thought  best  to  exhibit 
the  two  separately.  (The  difference  in  the  two  scores 
may  be  attributed  in  part  to  a  better  adjustment  in  the 
second  case  to  the  conditions  of  the  test.  It  is  known, 
for  example,  that  E2,  whose  performance  in  the  first 
test  was  poorest  of  all  and  in  the  second  test  consider- 
ably better  than  the  average,  was  greatly  scared  at  the 
time  of  the  first  test.  His  fright  was  so  noticeable  that 
he  was  allowed  to  rest  a  while  before  the  record  was 
taken.  A  second  cause  for  the  difference  may  be  the 
fact  that  a  test  for  rate  of  tapping  had  just  preceded 
the  test  for  steadiness  by  a  small  interval  in  the  first 
case  and  had  not  in  the  second.)  The  performances  in 
the  second  test  for  steadiness,  and  the  aiming  and  mirror 
drawing  tests  are  compared  with  the  mean  for  the  test 
group. 


*Op.  tit.  p.  23. 


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1 

CHAPTER  VI. 
PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 

General  Discussion 

Up  to  this  point  in  the  discussion,  we  have  been  con- 
cerned (1)  with  giving  a  general  introduction  to  the  prob- 
lem of  the  research,  (2)  with  explaining  the  nature  and 
sources  of  our  data,  (3)  with  describing  the  experimen- 
tal work  which  we  have  done,  and  (4)  with  presenting 
in  condensed  tabular  form  the  numerical  results  of  the 
experimental  study.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  present 
'  profiles ?1  showing  the  performance  of  each  subject  in 
the  several  tests,  the  results  of  which  lend  themselves 
most  readily  to  this  type  of  treatment,  and  additional 
data  gathered  from  supervisors  and  teachers  of  drawing, 
from  parents,  and  from  other  persons.  Then,  at  the 
close  of  the  chapter,  we  shall  bring  together  in  a  single 
table  the  most  important  facts  (experimental  and  non- 
experimental)  that  we  have  gathered  concerning  all  of 
our  subjects. 

Figures  1  to  13,  inclusive,  exhibit  graphically  the  re- 
sults recorded  in  Tables  2,  4,  8,  and  14,  and  parts  of 
Tables  17  and  18.  Additional  data  concerning  each  sub- 
ject are  presented  under  a  separate  heading  for  each 
individual.  The  order  in  which  the  individuals  are  dis- 
cussed is  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  presentation  of 
the  numerical  results. 


1For  the  use  of  the  term  profile,  see  the  following:  Rossolimo,  G.  Die 
psychologischen  Profile.  Klinik  fur  psychische  und  nervose  Erankheiten, 
6:  1911,  Heft  3;  Claparede,  Ed.  Profils  psychologiques.  Archives  de 
psychologie,  16,  1916,  70ff. 

77 


78  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

87 

S7  is  19  years  of  age.2  His  father  is  a  physician. 
His  mother  is  "an  artist,  her  father  an  architect,  and 
her  mother  a  natural  designer/'  His  paternal  grand- 
father is  "quite  mechanically  inclined."  The  young 
man's  interest  in  drawing  dates  from  his  very  early 
childhood,  the  age  of  three  or  four  years.  His  only 
training  in  drawing,  aside  from  the  regular  school  work, 
has  been  a  correspondence  course  which  was  only  par- 
tially completed.  This  course  was  given  up  when  he 
entered  the  Academy.  At  the  age  of  17  he  did  some 
drawing  for  a  high-school  journal.  He  is  most  inter- 
ested in  cartooning  or  illustrating  and  states  that  he 
intends  to  become  a  cartoonist.  Trouble  with  his  eyes 
has  delayed  his  school  progress.  The  study  of  mathe- 
matics has  given  him  some  difficulty.  He  is  interested 
in  music  and  plays  a  saxophone.  The  consulting  psy- 
chologist of  the  Academy  characterizes  him  as  "distinctly 
of  the  artistic  type." 

88 

88  is  15  years,  three  months  of  age.  His  father  is  an 
artist  (mural  decorator)  of  some  distinction.  His 
mother,  also,  is  an  artist  of  ability.  Some  years  ago  she 
was  awarded  a  prize  by  the  National  Academy  of  Design 
for  the  most  important  work  in  American  art  for  that 
year.  88  likes  to  draw  and  "draws  with  ability  along 
lines  of  his  interest,  i.e.,  birds,  flowers,  etc. ' '  He  thinks 
that  he  does  not  want  to  become  an  artist,  however,  not 
because  of  any  dislike  for  the  work,  but  because  "artists 
are  not  much  in  demand/'  as  he  put  it!  In  line  with 


2The  ages  given  in  this  chapter  are  calculated  to  December  31,   1916. 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 


79 


3TTT 


what  seems  to  be  his  innate  tendency  toward  art,  he  has 
had  some  intention  to  become  an  architect,  but  finds 
himself  poor  in  mathematics.  He  is  near  the  foot  of  the 
class  in  algebra,  but  stands  at  the  head  in  French  and 
near  the  head  in  Latin.  He  is  not  interested  in  athletic 
games  but  likes  hunting,  tramping,  and  swimming.  The 
Consulting  Psychologist  of  the  Academy  characterizes 
him  as  "distinctly  of  the  artistic  type,"  and  says  that 
87  has  ' t  probably  more  actual  ability  in  draftsmanship ' ' 
but  that  88  has  "more  artistic  appreciation." 

FIGURE  1.     Profiles  of  S7  and  S8. 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of  Table  2) 

Percentiles 

Mirror  Drawing  E.  H.  28 
Substitution  26 
Marble  Statue  19 
Dutch  Homestead  20 
Code  1-g 
Reasoning  12 
Fables  1-f 
Proverbs  10 
Easy  Directions  9 
Reading  Backward  31 
Heading  Forward  30 
Analogies  C  6 
Opposites  5 
Winch's  Story  4 
T'rabue  J  and  K  3 
Word  Building  2 
Average  16  Tests 
Percentiles 


80  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

SI 

SI  completed  her  high-school  course  within  the  school 
year  1916-17.  Her  age  calculated  to  December  31,  1916, 
is  19  years,  8  months.  She  is  classed  by  the  supervisor 
of  drawing  as  one  of  the  best  of  about  75  students  who 
have  been  in  her  classes  during  the  present  school  year. 
Only  two  have  been  given  higher  marks  by  the  super- 
visor in  all  her  experience.  She  is  characterized  by  the 
supervisor  as  very  neat  and  careful,  very  good  in  color 
combinations,  good  in  object  drawing,  particularly  good 
in  aesthetic  judgment,  and  original.  The  technique  has 
offered  no  particular  difficulties.  She  is  persistent  in 
her  work  and  would  undoubtedly  have  a  promising  fu- 
ture if  she  would  continue  her  art  study. 

Nearly  all  of  the  immediate  relatives  of  SI  are 
farmers.  Except  for  one  sister  who  showed  some  special 
aptitude  for  drawing  in  high  school,  she  knows  of  none 
of  her  immediate  relatives  who  have  been  especially  good 
in  drawing. 

The  first  special  interest  in  drawing  which  SI  can  re- 
member goes  back  about  to  the  time  when  she  was  in  the 
sixth  grade  of  the  common  schools.  As  far  back,  how- 
ever, as  she  can  remember  she  has  always  drawn  pictures. 
Upon  entering  the  high  school  she  wished  to  take  up 
drawing  at  once,  but  it  would  not  fit  into  her  program. 
From  the  second  year  in  the  high  school  she  pursued  a 
business  course  and  did  not  take  the  art  courses  until  the 
beginning  of  the  third  year.  The  only  training,  then, 
which  she  has  had  is  what  was  obtained  in  the  regular 
work  of  the  grade  schools  and  in  two  semesters  of  regular 
high-school  courses.  She  seems  not  to  have  had  enough 
training  to  develop  very  special  interests. 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  81 

The  average  of  39  semester  grades  of  SI  including 
all  subjects  taken  is  83  (75  is  passing).  In  five  semes- 
ters of  Latin  she  received  very  low  grades,  but  a  very 
high  grade  in  one  semester  of  German.  Other  grades 
need  no  particular  comment. 

She  has  taken  a  few  lessons  on  the  piano.  She  is 
interested  in  out-of-door  sports  and  appears  to  be  normal 
in  emotional  characteristics. 

82 

82  is  a  high-school  junior  of  the  age  of  17  years,  two 
months.  He  stands  about  second  in  drawing  ability  in 
the  Urbana  High  School  according  to  the  estimate  of  the 
supervisor  of  drawing. 

His  father  is  a  mathematician,  but  has  drawn  illus- 
trations for  books.  Practically  all  of  his  mother's  peo- 
ple are  architects;  indeed,  her  father  is  a  professor  of 
architecture.  His  only  brother  is  a  student  in  civil 
engineering. 

82  was  born  in  this  country,  of  Swiss  parentage. 
The  first  language  he  learned  to  speak  was  English. 
Before  school  age,  however,  he  began  to  speak  a  Swiss- 
German  dialect,  and  upon  entering  school  in  Switzerland 
took  up  the  study  of  German  in  the  first  grade.  Upon 
returning  to  the  United  States  about  five  years  ago,  he 
began  again  to  speak  English. 

His  first  memory  of  interest  in  drawing  goes  back  to 
map  drawing  in  the  Swiss  schools.  After  a  while  it 
seemed  to  him  that  particularly  in  water-color  drawing, 
he  did  not  succeed  as  well  as  others  in  the  schools,  and 
he  rather  lost  interest  in  drawing  on  that  account.  Even 
to  this  time  he  does  not  like  water-color  drawing.  He 


82 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


was  yet  in  the  grade  schools  when  he  returned  to  this 
country.  His  interest  in  drawing  was  revived  when  he 
found  that  he  could  draw  better  than  the  pupils  in 
American  schools.  His  training  in  drawing  consists  of 
what  he  received  in  the  grade  schools  and  a  year  of  high- 

FIGURE  2.     Profiles  of  SI,  S3,  and  So. 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of  Table  4) 


Percentiles 
Drawing  Cart  45 
Drawing  Horse  45 
Eossolimo  Observation  33 
Cancellation  7's  32 
Mirror  Drawing  E.  H.  28 
Perceptual  Learning  27 
Thurstone  Substitution  26 
Marble  Statue  19 
111.  Aesthetic  Judgment  18 
Th.  Aesthetic  Appreciate  17 
Code  1-g 
Painted  Cube  16 
Spatial  Eelations  34 
Thurstone  Hand  13 
Thurstone  Seasoning  12 
Easy  Directions  9 
Pictorial  Imagination  8 
Ink  Blots  7 
Analogies  C  6 
Trabue  J  and  K  3 
Word  Building  2 
Binet  I.  Q.  1 
Percentiles 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 


83 


school  drawing,  which  embraced  both  free-hand  and  me- 
chanical work.  He  has  done  practical  work  in  illus- 
trating, some  of  which  has  appeared  in  the  Denver  Post, 
and  some  of  which  will  appear  in  the  high-school  annual. 
He  likes  decorative  drawing,  but  dislikes  mechanical 

FIGURE  3.     Profiles  of  88,  84,  and  86. 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of  Table  4) 

Percentiles 
Drawing  Cart  45 
Drawing  Horse  45 
Rossolimo  Observation  33 
Cancellation  7's  32 
Mirror  Drawing  E.  H.  28 
Perceptual  Learning  27 
Thurstone  Substitution  26 
Marble  Statue  19 
111.  Aesthetic  Judgment  18 
Th.  Aesthetic  Appreciat  ;n  17 
Code  1-g 
Painted  Cube  16 
Spatial  Eelations  14 
Thurstone  Hand  13 
Thurstone  Reasoning  12 
Easy  Directions  9 
Pictorial   Imagination   8 
Ink  Blots  7 
Analogies  C  6 
Trabue  J  and  K  3 
Word  Building  2 
Binet  I.  Q.  1 
Percentiles 


84  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

drawing.  His  training  has  been  too  limited  as  yet  for 
the  development  of  very  special  interests.  He  wants  to 
become  an  artist  and  would  like  to  go  into  pure  art.  On 
the  other  hand,  for  financial  reasons  he  may  go  into  illus- 
trating and  commercial  work. 

Of  other  school  subjects  he  likes  history,  literature 
(but  not  the  kind  which  is  taught  in  school,  as  he  said) 
botany  and  zoology.  Mathematics,  foreign  language, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  he  dislikes.  The  average  of  20 
semester  grades,  not  including  drawing,  is  82. 

He  plays  the  piano  and  guitar,  but  does  not  sing. 
He  is  interested  in  out-of-door  life  and  athletics,  but 
he  does  not  take  part  in  school  athletics. 

S3 

S3  is  a  junior  in  the  high  school.  Her  age  is  16 
years,  9  months.  She  is  ranked  by  the  supervisor  of 
drawing  as  the  best  in  the  Urbana  High  School.  Her 
work  shows  originality  as  well  as  ability  in  technique. 

There  are  no  artists  among  her  immediate  relatives. 
Her  father  is  a  distinguished  physicist  and  illustrates  his 
own  articles  (mechanical  drawing).  A  three-year-old 
sister  has  begun  to  draw  and  a  brother  and  sister  in  the 
grade  schools  draw  well. 

As  far  as  her  memory  goes,  she  has  always  liked 
drawing.  In  the  first  grade  she  was  very  fond  of  draw- 
ing faces  on  the  blackboard.  She  has  had  drawing  in- 
struction all  through  the  grades  of  the  elementary  school 
and  two  years  in  the  high  school.  None  of  this  has  been 
mechanical  drawing.  The  development  of  technique  has 
been  comparatively  easy.  Two  or  three  years  ago  her 
interest  was  greatly  stimulated  by  a  visit  to  an  artist's 
studio.  From  that  time  the  possibility  of  becoming  an 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 


85 


artist  seemed  to  her  more  attainable.  She  has  done  a 
little  practical  work  such  as  illustrating  for  a  high- 
school  annual  and  drawing  posters. 

Her  rank  in  other  subjects  is  very  high.  The  average 
of  20  semester  grades,  not  including  drawing,  is  94.  She 
has  a  great  fondness  for  reading  and  will  of  her  own 


FIGURE  4.     Deviations  from  Averages  in  Motor  Tests,  Subjects 
SI,  88,  S3,  and  84. 

(See  Table  8  for  numerical  data) 


Steadiness 


A  >m  ing 


R   L 


R   L 


S3 

*V -, 

Si.  \  \ 

*0  \\ 

\ 

Ni 


+£- 


A 


Y_ 


86  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

initiative  pursue  some  subject,  perhaps  in  an  encyclo- 
pedia, for  a  whole  evening.  Music  also  interests  her. 
She  is  able  to  play  difficult  music  on  the  piano.  Her 
outside  interests  and  emotional  characteristics  appear  to 
bo  normal. 

84 

S4  is  a  high-school  senior  of  exceptional  drawing  abil- 
ity. His  age  is  18  years,  eight  months.  With  S5  he 
stands  about  third  in  drawing  in  the  Urbana  High 
School. 

S4's  father  is  a  physician  of  high  standing.  His 
mother  has  drawn  some,  but  neither  his  father  nor  his 
mother  has  developed  any  special  interest  in  art.  Among 
his  immediate  relatives  there  are  no  artists.  Two  aunts 
and  an  uncle  on  his  mother's  side  have  drawn  to  some 
extent,  as  a  side  interest.  A  brother  in  the  first  year  of 
the  high  school  shows  rather  exceptional  talent  in  draw- 
ing. 

His  first  interest  in  drawing  began  before  he  had  en- 
tered school.  At  times  he  would  tease  his  smaller 
brother  by  drawing  trains  and  explaining  that  his  folks 
were  going  away  on  them.  He  has  had  drawing  instruc- 
tion through  the  grades  and  for  two  years  in  the  high 
school.  None  of  this  has  been  mechanical  drawing,  ex- 
cept that  incidentally  given  in  the  free-hand  course. 
When  he  was  in  about  the  fourth  grade,  however,  an  en- 
gineering student  gave  him  some  assistance  in  mechan- 
ical drawing  and  stimulated  his  endeavor  by  grading 
his  attempts.  The  development  of  technique  in  drawing 
has  been  easy.  Most  of  his  work  has  been  with  pencil. 
He  has  had  a  special  interest  in  drawing  things  of  a 
military  and  naval  character  and  enjoys  drawing  from 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  87 

imagination  more  than  from  model.  In  such  spontane- 
ous drawings  he  usually  draws  as  if  from  a  distance  in 
order  that  details  may  not  show.  He  has  thought  of 
going  into  architecture,  but  is  deterred  somewhat  by  the 
thought  that  he  is  not  good  in  mathematics. 

Of  his  other  subjects  he  likes  history,  literature,  Ger- 
man, and  science,  but  does  not  like  mathematics  partic- 
ularly well.  He  plays  the  violin  and  sings.  The  aver- 
age of  29  semester  grades,  not  including  drawing,  is  87. 
In  other  directions  his  interests  appear  to  be  normal. 

He  has  a  kind-  of  ambidexterity  which  should  be  de- 
scribed. He  uses  the  left  hand  for  coarse  work  such  as 
throwing,  striking,  using  a  hammer,  and  the  like.  At 
the  same  time  he  does  fine  work  with  his  right  hand,  such, 
for  example,  as  carving  with  a  penknife,  or  writing,  or 
drawing.  Each  of  his  hands  seems  to  be  naturally  fitted 
for  the  type  of  work  to  which  he  devotes  them.  He  can 
not  remember  of  ever  having  changed  from  the  left  hand 
to  the  right  in  writing. 

S5 

S5  is  a  high-school  senior  of  the  age  of  17  years,  6 
months.  With  S4  she  ranks  about  third  in  drawing 
ability  of  the  students  of  the  Urbana  High  School. 

There  are  no  artists  among  her  near  relatives.  In 
his  lifetime  her  father,  however,  was  a  maker  of  tin- 
smith's patterns,  and  his  twin  brother  "can  draw  any- 
thing," notwithstanding  the  fact  that  he  has  had  no 
lessons  in  drawing.  Her  only  brother,  an  adult,  does 
not  draw. 

Although  S5  remembers  that  she  could  write  before 
entering  school,  she  remembers  no  drawing  previous  to 
that  time.  On  the  first  day  of  school  her  interest  was 


88  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

awakened  by  the  drawing  of  an  apple  on  a  slate.  Since 
that  time  her  interest  in  drawing  has  been  steadily  main- 
tained. She  has  had  the  training  in  drawing  which  is 
given  in  the  grade  schools  and  two  years  of  high-school 
drawing  besides.  In  addition,  she  has  done  recently 
outside  of  school  a  little  work  in  oil  painting.  The 
acquisition  of  technique  has  been  fairly  easy.  She  pre- 
fers to  draw  from  model  rather  than  from  memory.  Her 
interests  have  not  yet  developed  far  enough  to  become 
highly  specialized.  During  the  present  year  she  has 
been  doing  some  illustrating  for  the  high-school  annual. 

Arranged  in  order  of  preference,  her  other  high- 
school  subjects  would  be  distributed  somewhat  as  follows : 
best  of  all,  mathematics,  then  science,  then  literature, 
then  German,  and  last  history.  The  average  of  28  se- 
mester grades,  not  including  drawing,  is  87.  She  plays 
on  the  piano  almost  any  selection  that  she  wants  to  play 
and  memorizes  music  easily. 

She  is  interested  in  active  sports  and  seems  generally 
normal  in  her  development. 

S6 

S6  is  a  high-school  junior.  Her  age  on  December  31, 
1916,  was  18  years,  10  months.  She  is  considered  as  one 
of  the  best  in  about  75  students  who  are  in  the  classes 
of  the  supervisor  of  drawing  during  the  current  year. 
Compared  with  SI,  she  ranks  probably  a  little  lower. 
Technique  offers  no  special  difficulty,  and  she  has  a  good 
aesthetic  judgment,  as  estimated  by  the  supervisor.  Her 
work  shows  originality. 

Among  the  immediate  relatives  of  S6  there  are  no 
persons  who  would  be  classed  as  artists.  Three  cousins 
are  interested  in  drawing  but  do  nothing  out  of  the  ordi- 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 


FIGURE  5.     Deviations  from  Averages  in  Motor  Tests,   Subjects 
85,  86,  C4,  and  C5. 

(See  Table  8  for  numerical  data) 


Crip 


Tapping 


Steed  <n«« 


ft          4. 


H         L 


R         L 


R         L 


!\ 


-Ur 


^ 


\ 


•3* 


SI* 


90  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

nary  in  it.  Her  mother  does  not  draw.  Her  father  has 
had  no  training  in  drawing,  but  he  is  able  to  make  pencil 
sketches  of  persons  who  can  be  recognized  from  the  drawT- 
ings.  The  occupation  of  her  father  is  that  of  an  esti- 
mator for  contracting.  She  has  no  brothers  or  sisters. 

SB's  interest  in  drawing,  as  far  as  she  can  remember 
it,  dates  from  about  the  time  of  her  seventh  year.  Some 
one  gave  her  a  ledger  in  which  she  would  make  various 
drawings.  At  about  the  age  of  11  she  was  one  of  a  group 
of  girls  who  became  interested  in  drawing  the  "Gibson 
pictures."  After  this  interest  had  become  less  intense, 
she  seemed  to  lose  much  of  her  interest  in  drawing  until 
she  entered  the  high  school.  She  has  had  the  usual 
training  in  drawing  through  the  grades  of  the  common 
schools,  except  that  no  drawing  was  given  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  graeds  of  the  school  which  she  was  then  at- 
tending. While  in  the  seventh  grade  she  did  a  little 
work  in  oil  painting  outside  of  school.  In  the  high 
school  she  is  completing  her  second  year  of  drawing. 
In  addition  to  this  work  she  has  taken  lessons  outside  of 
school  in  China  painting  for  about  a  year  and  a  half. 

Her  experience  has  not  been  wide  enough  and  long 
enough  to  enable  her  to  state  her  dominant  interest  in 
drawing.  Just  now,  because  of  her  school  work  in  that 
direction,  she  has  a  strong  interest  in  design.  She  pre- 
fers to  draw  from  model  rather  than  from  memory. 

In  her  general  school  work  she  has  received  an  aver- 
age semester  grade  of  85.  She  dislikes  Latin  and  math- 
ematics and  has  not  succeeded  very  well  with  them.  Her 
grades  in  German  are  much  better. 

She  is  interested  in  music  and  plays  the  piano,  but 
her  piano  training  has  not  gone  very  far.  She  likes  out- 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 


91 


of-door  sports  and  appears  to  lead  a  normal  emotional 
life. 

Cl 

Cl  is  a  senior  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences. We  are  unable  to  report  with  certainty  upon  the 
extent  of  her  talent  for  drawing.  It  will  be  observed 
that  both  of  her  drawings  made  in  the  course  of  these 
tests  rank  considerably  above  the  average.  This  may 
be  significant  in  view  of  the  small  training  which  she  has 
had.  She  likes  to  draw,  but  she  has  had  no  special  train- 
ing in  drawing  since  the  fourth  or  fifth  grades  of  the 
common  schools. 

FIGURE  6.    Profile  of  Cl. 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of  Table  4) 


Percentiles 
Drawing  Cart  45 
Drawing  Horse  45 
Eossolimo  Observation  33 
Mirror  Drawing  E.  H.  28 
111.  Aesthetic  Judgment  18 
Th.  Aesthetic  Appreciat  'n  17 
Code  1-g 
Painted  Cube  16 
Spatial  Eelations  14 
Thurstone  Hand  13 
Pictorial  Imagination  8 
Ink  Blots  7 
Analogies  C  6 
Binet  I.  Q.  1 
Percentiles 


92 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


There  are  no  artists  among  her  immediate  relatives. 
Her  father,  a  lawyer,  draws  to  some  extent,  but  has  not 
developed  his  interest  very  far.  She  has  no  brothers  or 
sisters,  except  a  half-brother  of  seven  years  who  seems 
to  draw  with  some  promise. 

Her  first  interest  in  drawing,  as  far  as  she  can  re- 
member, goes  back  to  her  childhood,  when  her  father 

FIGURE  7.     Profiles  of  C2  and  C3. 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of  Table  4) 


Percentiles 

Drawing  Cart  45 
Drawing  Horse  45 
Perceptual  Learning  27 
Thurstone  Substitution  26 
Marble  Statue  19 
111.  Aesthetic  Judgment  18 
Spatial  Relations  14 
Thurstone  Hand  13 
Analogies  C  6 
Trabue  J  and  K  3 
Word  Building  2 
Percentiles 
Drawing  Cart  45 
Drawing  Horse  45 
Perceptual  Learning  27 
Th.  Aesthetic  Appreciate  17 
Painted  Cube  16 
Spatial  Relations  14 
Thurstone  Hand  13 
Percentiles 


PROFILES    AND    PERSONAL   DATA 


93 


was  accustomed  to  make  drawings  to  amuse  her.  She 
likes  to  draw  now  and  enjoys  landscape  drawing  better 
than  any  other. 

She  is  interested  in  music  and  has  developed  her 
talent  in  this  more  than  in  drawing.  She  plays  the 
piano  with  some  skill  and  sings  also. 


FIGURE  8.     Deviations  from  Averages  in  Motor   Tests,   Subjects 
01,  C&,  and  C3. 

(See  Table  8  for  numerical  data) 


Grip 


Tapping 


Stea 


R 


A 


'x 


94  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

C2 

C2  is  a  graduate  student  in  education.  The  develop- 
ment of  his  interest  and  ability  appears  to  indicate  a 
native  talent  for  drawing.  He  has  drawn  ever  since  he 
can  remember,  and  has  always  enjoyed  it.  His  earliest 
memory  of  drawing  is  that  of  drawing  animals.  In  these 
childish  drawings  he  was  encouraged  by  his  father.  In 
the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  he  had  no  instruc- 
tion in  drawing  outside  of  the  regular  subjects, — the 
drawing,  for  example,  which  is  incidental  to  botany.  At 
the  age  of  about  12  or  13,  he  had  a  strong  desire  to  be- 
come a  cartoonist  and  took  a  course  in  cartooning  for 
about  three  months.  During  the  high  period  of  this  in- 
terest, he  took  much  delight  in  drawing  pictures  of  the 
political  characters  of  the  day.  He  has  practiced  pick- 
ing out  characteristic  physical  features  of  the  persons 
with  whom  he  comes  into  contact.  In  college,  along  with 
his  other  work,  he  studied  drawing  for  two  years.  As 
far  as  he  knows,  there  are  no  artists  among  his  relatives. 

Questions  supplementary  to  the  Betts  questionary 
(Test  29)  revealed  some  interesting  facts  which  may  be 
noted  here.  C2  reports  that  the  act  of  drawing  an  ob- 
ject is  for  him  a  matter  of  'tracing  lines  which  stand  out 
in  the  object  as  these  appear  on  the  page.  People  are 
remembered  by  their  faces  and  features  more  than  by 
their  names.  When  a  word  like  law  is  mentioned  to  him, 
the  visual  representation  of  a  court  scene  appears  to 
him. 

C3 

Apparently,  C3  represents  a  type  of  person  who  has 
native  ability  in  drawing,  the  development  of  which  is 
limited  by  rather  low  intellectual  power.  He  is  a  soph- 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  95 

omore  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts  and  Sciences.  His 
college  record  has  been  generally  very  poor.  Even  in 
art  courses  in  which  he  is  registered,  he  stands  compar- 
atively very  low,  despite  the  fact  that  apparently  he  is 
making  an  earnest  effort.  He  appears  to  be  unable  to 
profit  rapidly  by  the  suggestions  which  are  given  him 
for  the  improvement  of  his  technique.  On  the  other 
hand,  his  parentage,  his  interest,  the  results  of  the  tests 
in  drawing  which  we  gave,  and  certain  supplementary 
drawings  which  we  have  seen  him  do,  argue  that  he  has 
probably  some  native  talent  for  drawing. 

He  can  not  remember  his  first  interest  in  drawing. 
In  school  he  decorated  his  text-books  with  drawings,  car- 
toons and  pictures.  In  the  grade  schools  he  had  the  or- 
dinary instruction  and  in  the  high  school  had  one  year  of 
drawing,  a  combination  of  both  free-hand  and  mechanical 
drawing.  Since  that  time  he  has  had  no  regular  instruc- 
tion, except  that  which  he  has  received  in  the  college 
courses  in  which  he  has  recently  registered.  He  has 
worked  for  a  very  short  time  in  china  decorating,  but 
has  not  had  a  great  deal  of  practical  experience  in  ar- 
tistic expression. 

His  father  and  mother  are  both  artists  and  have 
taken  prizes  in  their  work.  His  father  is  a  china  dec- 
orator. 

C3  plays  the  piano  a  little  and  sings  much  more.  He 
has  had  vocal  lessons  for  three  years  and  has  done  quite 
a  little  public  singing. 

His  generally  low  intellectual  power  may  probably 
be  accounted  for  by  a  severe  attack  of  typhoid  fever  and 
spinal  meningitis  combined  when  he  was  about  nine 
years  of  age,  and  by  a  hard  blow  which  he  received  on 
the  back  of  the  head  at  about  12  years  of  age.  It  seems 


96 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


probable,  then,  that  we  have  here  original  talent  ob- 
scured by  later  adverse  general  developments. 

C4 

C4  is  a  college  senior  in  household  science.     She  is 
one  of  two  students  recommended  from  the  Department 


FIGURE  9.     Profiles  of  C4  and  Co 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of 

Percentiles 
Drawing  Cart  45 
Drawing  Horse  45 
Eossolimo  Observation  33 
Cancellation  7's  32 
Mirror  Drawing  E.  H.  28 
Perceptual   Learning   27 
Thurstone  Substitution  26 
Marble  Statue  19 
111.  Aesthetic  Judgment  18 
Th.  Aesthetic  Appreciates  17 
Code  1-g 
Painted  Cube  16 
Spatial  Eelations  14 
Thurstone  Hand  13 
Thurstone  Eeasoning   12 
Easy  Directions  9 
Pictorial  Imagination  8 
Analogies  C  6 
Trabue  J  and  K  3 
Binet  I.  Q.  1 
Word  Building  2 
Percentiles 


Table  4) 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  97 

of  Art  and  Design  as  "advanced  students  who  have 
reached  a  degree  of  ability  in  technique  and  show  orig- 
inality. " 

There  is  some  evidence  of  drawing  ability  among  the 
near  relatives  of  C4.  Her  mother  showed  ability  in 
drawing  and  took  some  training  in  it  in  college,  but  she 
never  carried  the  work  very  far.  None  of  her  brothers 
and  sisters  has  had  much  training  in  drawing.  One  of 
her  sisters,  despite  lack  of  training,  can  draw  pencil 
portraits  of  her  instructors,  for  example,  which  are  strik- 
ingly like  the  model.  Her  father  is  a  farmer. 

C4  has  "always"  liked  to  draw.  In  her  childhood, 
however,  she  attended  a  country  school  where  the  oppor- 
tunities were  greatly  limited,  and  for  this  reason  little 
stimulus  was  given  to  develop  her  ability.  Even  at  home 
she  received  little  encouragement.  Her  mother,  even 
though  she  had  herself  received  training  in  art,  rather 
discouraged  than  encouraged  her.  The  daughter's  at- 
tempts at  drawing  received  scant  notice.  One  of  the 
teachers  in  the  country  school  would  draw  birds  and 
other  things  such  as  the  ornate  penman  of  a  generation 
ago  so  much  enjoyed,  and  these  drawings  fascinated  the 
child.  In  the  high  school  she  received  no  training — in- 
deed none  until  she  reached  college,  except  the  little  in- 
cidental training  which  she  received  in  the  public  schools. 
Yet  through  all  these  years  she  cherished  the  dream  that 
some  day  she  might  have  the  opportunity  and  might  ac- 
complish something  in  art.  In  the  university  she  has 
taken  courses  in  art  and  design,  charcoal  drawing,  mod- 
elling, sketching,  and  oil  painting. 

Her  interests  in  drawing  are  not  yet  narrowly  spe- 
cialized. Her  interests  include  such  widely  different 
subjects  as  portraits,  landscapes,  and  mechanical  draw- 


98  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

ing.  She  likes  to  work  with  various  mediums,  but  is 
particularly  fond  of  working  with  clay.  If  she  were 
entirely  free  to  choose  her  career,  it  would  be  that  of  a 
sculptor.  She  finds  it  easier  to  draw  from  the  model 
than  from  memory.  In  creative  drawing  she  has  not 
done  enough  work  to  know  how  she  would  like  it. 

Of  her  other  studies  she  likes  language,  literature, 
mathematics,  and  science,  but  strongly  dislikes  history. 
She  is  interested  in  music  and  has  taken  vocal  and  piano 
lessons,  the  latter  for  a  period  of  five  or  six  years.  She 
also  plays  the  mandolin  and  violin. 

C5 

C5  was  a  senior  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts  and 
Sciences.  Like  C4  she  was  recommended  from  the  De- 
partment of  Art  and  Design  as  one  of  the  "advanced 
students  who  have  reached  a  degree  of  ability  in  tech- 
nique and  show  originality. "  The  supervisor  of  art  in 
the  high  school  from  which  she  was  graduated  states  that 
C5  was  about  as  good  in  drawing  then  as  any  pupil  she 
has  ever  had. 

Although  the  record  of  C5  's  interest  and  achievement 
in  drawing  apparently  shows  a  native  talent,  there  is 
little  evidence  of  this  ability  in  the  circle  of  her  immedi- 
ate relatives.  Within  this  circle  there  are  no  artists.  It 
may  be  said,  however,  that  her  mother  has  ' '  always  liked 
art  work."  Her  father  is  particularly  capable  in  me- 
chanical work  and  is  a  good  penman.  When  about  five 
years  of  age  he  made  a  sketch  which  attracted  enough 
attention  to  be  preserved  for  years.  He  is  an  electrical 
engineer. 

As  long  as  C5  can  remember  she  has  been  interested 
in  art.  At  about  the  age  of  three  she  would  cut  oui 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  99 

original  patterns  with  the  scissors.  In  the  common 
branches  she  had  only  the  regular  work ;  she  remembers 
no  special  school  instruction  in  drawing  until  about  the 
eighth  grade.  When  about  11,  she  began  to  take  lessons 
in  oil  painting.  This  work  consisted  chiefly  in  tracing 
and  then  working  in  details. "  All  through  the  grades  of 
the  common  school,  she  was  in  demand  to  go  from  room  to 
room  to  put  drawings  on  the  board  for  various  teachers. 
In  the  high  school  she  had  six  semesters  of  drawing  in- 
struction, and  has  continued  her  work  in  college  for 
three  years.  She  is  more  highly  trained  than  any  mem- 
ber of  our  test  groups. 

Of  the  different  lines  of  work  represented  in  her 
training,  she  is  probably  most  interested  in  representa- 
tion of  the  human  figure.  She  likes  to  work  from  mem- 
ory rather  than  from  model  and  to  create  various  com- 
positions. She  enjoys  working  with  various  mediums. 
Already  she  has  done  quite  a  little  practical  work,  such 
as  commercial  illustrating,  portrait  work,  motto  print- 
ing, etc.  It  is  her  plan  to  continue  with  commercial 
art. 

In  her  high-school  work  the  average  of  her  38  semes- 
ter grades  is  87.  Although  she  got  along  very  well  with 
arithmetic  in  the  grades,  she  found  high-school  mathe- 
matics more  difficult,  and  especially  was  this  true  with 
geometry.  Foreign  languages  required  work,  but  she 
succeeded  fairly  well  with  them.  She  likes  history,  and 
finds  English  easy. 

El 

El  is  a  pupil  in  the  sixth  grade.  Her  age  is  13  years, 
10.5  months.  She  is,  therefore,  older  than  the  average 
pupil  of  this  grade.  Even  allowing  for  this  fact,  her 


100 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


drawing  teacher  places  her  near  the  top  of  her  grade 
in  native  drawing  ability.  Her  originality  is  not  com- 
mensurate with  her  ability  in  graphic  representation; 
she  can  follow  better  than  she  can  originate.  She  works 
better  with  water  colors  than  with  pencil,  and  in  working 
with  water  colors  she  likes  to  work  directly,  rather  than 

FIGURE   10.     Profiles  of  El,  E2,  and  E3. 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of  Table  14) 

Percentiles  ^    £|   ^    g[    g     j[    ^    ^" 

Handwriting,   School  Marks 

Drawing,  School  Marks 

Drawing  Cart  45 

Drawing  Horse  45 

Cancellation  7's  32 

Cancellation  Triangles  32 

Perceptual  Learning  27 

Lincoln  &  Pig,  Deferred  22 

Lincoln  &  Pig,  Immediate  22 

Marble  Statue  19 

Th.  Aesthetic  Appreciat'n  17 

Code  1-g 

Punched  Holes  15 

Spatial  Relations  14 

Thurstone  Hand  13 

Thurstone  Reasoning  12 

Bonser  Reasoning  11 

Proverbs  I,  II,  VI  10 

Trabue  J  and  K  3 

Word  Building  2 

School  Standing 

Binet  I.  Q.  1 

Tercentiles 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  101 


FIGURE  11.     Deviations  from  Averages  in  Slotor  T:.'3ts,  Suhjectk 
El,  Eg,  and  E3. 

(See  Tables  17  and  18  for  numerical  data) 


R 


R         t 


M 
^ 


fl 


-*V\ 


\ 


-££- 


£3 


^L_ 


-W- 


-21 


ir 

/ 


E2  is  left-handed.     The  scores  for  the  left  hand  are  given  in  the 
right-hand   column. 


.1?D2  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

to  lay  out  the  work  first  with  pencil  and  then  to  fill  in 
with  the  color. 

Apparently  her  talent  for  drawing  is  inherited.  Her 
father  is  a  tailor.  He  enjoys  drawing  and  lettering. 
Her  mother  takes  great  interest  in  the  children's  draw- 
ings, and  an  aunt  has  made  paintings  of  some  interest. 
An  older  brother  of  El  is  reported  as  very  good  ("orig- 
inal and  true")  in  drawing.  She  has  also  two  younger 
sisters  and  a  younger  brother  who  are  good  in  drawing. 

E2 

E2,  age  11  years,  6  months,  is  a  pupil  of  the  sixtn 
grade.  He  is  rated  by  his  teacher  of  drawing  as  stand- 
ing near  the  top  of  his  grade  and  school  in  native  draw- 
ing ability.  Compared  with  El  and  E3,  other  subjects 
in  the  sixth  grade,  he  stands  third.  He  is  capable  of 
working  independently  and  likes  imaginative  drawing. 
He  does  as  well  with  pencil  work  as  with  water-color 
painting.  Interest  and  persistence  characterize  his 
work.  He  is  left-handed. 

His  father  is  an  insurance  agent.  His  mother  has 
painted  in  oil  and  has  done  some  china  painting.  She 
is  artistic  in  her  home  decorations  and  in  her  children's 
dress.  A  brother  in  the  eighth  grade  is  very  good  in 
drawing,  one  of  the  best  in  his  grade.  Two  uncles  are 
architects. 

E3 

E3,  a  pupil  of  the  sixth  grade,  is  13  years,  1  month, 
of  age.  Even  considering  the  fact  that  her  age  is  greater 
than  the  average  child  of  her  grade,  the  teacher  of  draw- 
ing places  her  first  in  native  drawing  ability.  She  is  orig- 
inal in  her  work  and  responds  rapidly  to  suggestions  for 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  103 

the  impovement  of  her  drawings.     She  draws  as  well 
with  pencil  as  with  water  color. 

Her  father  is  a  policeman.  Aside  from  the  fact  that 
the  father  is  said  to  have  been  the  best  drawer  in  his 
family  in  his  youth,  the  author  has  no  information  of  any 
special  ability  in  drawing  among  the  relatives  of  E3. 
Her  mother  has  been  deceased  for  some  years. 

E4 

E4  is  a  pupil  of  the  fifth  grade.  His  age  is  10  years, 
10  months.  He  is  one  of  the  four  best  in  drawing  in 
his  grade  and  room.  He  works  as  well  with  pencil  as 
with  water  color.  He  is  interested  in  drawing  and  can 
do  his  work  with  less  help  than  the  average  child  of  his 
grade.  He  draws  little  at  home. 

His  father  is  a  professor  in  horticulture,  and  has 
shown  no  special  interest  in  art.  His  mother  has  worked 
in  water  color  and  oil  painting,  but  exhibited  no  special 
aptitude.  Her  grandfather  received  no  special  training 
in  art,  but  habitually  decorated  the  flyleaves  of  his 
books  with  drawings.  A  maternal  aunt  of  E4's  mother 
was  gifted  in  art,  as  shown  by  her  work  in  oil  painting. 
A  brother  and  sister  showed  more  than  average  ability 
in  drawing  in  the  grades. 

E5 

E5  is  10  years,  9  months,  of  age  and  is  a  pupil  of  the 
fifth  grade.  She  is  ranked  by  the  teacher  of  drawing  as 
one  of  the  four  best  of  her  grade  and  room.  The  qual- 
ity of  her  work  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  E6.  She 
does  better  with  water  color  than  with  pencil. 

There  is  a  little  evidence  of  special  ability  in  draw- 
ing among  her  relatives.  Her  father  is  a  blacksmith  and 


104 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 


FIGURE  12.     Profiles  of  E4,  E5,  and  E6. 
(Based  upon  approximate  percentiles  of  Table  14) 

Percentiles 

Handwriting,  School  Marks 
.  Drawing,  School  Marks 
Drawing  Cart  45 
Drawing  Horse  45 
Cancellation  7's  32 
Cancellation  Triangles  ?,'2 
Perceptual  Learning  27 
Lincoln  &  Pig,  Deferred  22 
Lincoln  &  Pig,  Immediate  22 
Marble  Statue  19 
Th.  Aesthetic  Appreciat  'n  17 
Code  1-g 

Punched  Holes  15 
Spatial  Eelations  14 
Thurstone  Hand  13 
Thurstone  Seasoning  12 
Bonser  Seasoning  11 
Proverbs  I,  II,  VI  10 
Trabue  J  and  K  3 
Word  Building  2 
School  Standing 
Binet  I.  Q.  1 
Percentiles 

carriage  maker.  A  cousin  is  a  draughtsman.  Her 
mother  has  not  developed  any  special  aptitude  for  draw- 
ing. 

E6 

E6  is  a  pupil  of  the  fifth  grade.     Her  age  is  11  years, 
3  months.     Her  ability  ranks  along  with  that  of  E5. 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 


105 


FKIURE  13.     Deviations  from  Averages  in  Motor  Tests,  Subjects 

E4,  E5,  and  E6. 
(See  Tables  17  and  18  for  numerical  data) 


106  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

Both  E5  and  E6  are  said  by  the  drawing  teacher  to  show 
less  originality  than  E4.  She  does  better  work  with 
water  color  than  with  pencil.  She  began  to  draw  very 
early. 

Her  father  is  a  concrete  contractor.  Her  mother 
specialized  in  art  and  design  in  the  university  and  was 
a  successful  supervisor  of  art  instruction  for  some  years 
in  the  public  schools.  She  has  no  brothers  or  sisters. 

Summary  of  Experimental  and  Personal  Data 

In  Table  19  a  summary  is  presented  of  many  of  the 
most  important  experimental  and  personal  data.  Nec- 
essarily, there  has  been  a  sacrifice  of  accuracy  and  de- 
tail, but  the  table  has  a  certain  value  in  exhibiting  to- 
gether a  large  number  of  facts  concerning  all  of  the  sub- 
jects. Most  of  the  headings  for  the  experimental  data 
have  been  chosen  to  include  more  than  one  test.  When 
the  results  of  the  tests  which  are  included  under  one 
heading  have  been  contradictory,  we  have  been  able  in 
some  cases  to  represent  the  tendency  of  the  scores  in  a 
single  measure,  but  in  others  it  has  seemed  best  to  in- 
dicate the  difference  by  giving  two  or  more  measures. 
The  designations  used  are  superior,  average,  and  poor 
(also  normal  for  the  test  of  color  vision  only).  The 
average  range,  where  the  scores  have  been  reduced  to 
percentile  standings,  is  that  between  the  30th  and  70th 
percentiles,  inclusive.  The  personal  data  given  in  the 
table  are  self-explanatory. 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  107 

TABLE  19 
SUMMARY  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  AND  PERSONAL  DATA 


Intelligence 

3 

o 

IS 

1 

1 

^ 

W 

a 

«fH    0 

°.s 

•^  o 

d  ft 

.2 

for  Visual  Forms 

(Visual,  Auditory, 
aesthetic) 

Manipulation  of 
rorms 

i  from 
Forms8 

Judgment 
lion 

1 
£ 

(Estimate  of  Su- 
and  Teachers) 

1 

9 

• 

73 

1 

§5 

.9  d 

.9  * 

f 

>»      £.9    ^^  .2.2 

•J3     > 

bfl 

a 

60  QQ 

2  o 

o 

I 

02 

g 

0) 

A 
B 

O 

P 

w> 
a 

3 

V 

O 

T3 

a 

03 

w 

'S3 
£  * 

'E  aj 
<y  a> 

OS    O 

5g 

3 

02 
rQ 
O 

o          O>  W      *e3  c3    "rt  X 
fl          SP          -S'-3     S  ft 
S          2  ^      S  eS     >  CS 
g          S  S     |2  ft    S  A 

^         M  c3     ^OJ   MO 

1     •§ 

3  6 

Drawi 

!! 

fi& 

El 

'P 

PA 

AP 

S 

>P 

A 

SA 

PA             AP      A 

PA  N 

S 

S 

E2 

A 

A 

SP 

A 

S 

S 

SA 

PA              PA    AS 

A  N 

S 

S 

E3 

P 

P 

SA 

A 

P 

A 

S 

SA              SA       S 

A  N 

S 

S 

#4 

S 

PA 

SAP 

P 

A 

A 

SA 

AS                A     SA 

AP  N 

A 

S 

E5 

A 

PA 

A 

S 

S 

A 

SP 

PA              PA      P 

A  N 

A 

S 

E6 

S 

S 

SP 

S 

S 

P 

A 

AP              AP       A 

A  N 

P 

S 

SI 

S 

SA 

SAP 

A 

S 

PA 

A 

S         PSA 

PS  N 

SA 

S 

S2 

A 

P 

SP 

P 

A 

SP 

SP 

PS    PAA  SP      A 

SP  N 

A 

S 

S3 

S 

S 

SAP 

A 

S 

S 

A 

S          SSA 

AS  N 

SA 

S 

£4 

S 

S 

SP 

P 

IS 

A 

SA 

AS    SAA  SA    AS 

AP  N 

S 

S 

S5 

S 

S 

SP 

S 

S 

A 

AS 

S    SSA      S   PA 

SA  N 

SA 

8 

S6 

A 

A 

AP 

S 

S 

P 

AS 

S    SSP   SP    AS 

A  N 

S 

S 

£7 

A 

AS 

A 

(P1 

S8 

A 

A 

A 

S1 

Cl 

S 

S 

SA 

A 

S 

A 

S4 

^"             AS       S 

AS 

S 

02 

S? 

SA 

S5   SSP  PA 

S3 

S 

C3 

P 

P 

A 

A3               A 

P 

S 

C4 

A 

A 

A 

A 

S 

SA 

SA 

AS         ASP2 

A  N 

S 

S 

C5 

S 

A 

S 

A 

9 

AP 

PS 

LS    SSA  SA     A2 

A  N 

SA 

S 

*Code  test  only. 

2Pictorial  imagination  test  only. 

3Thorndike  test  only. 

4Rossolimo  test  only. 

5Perceptual  learning  test  only. 

6Code  and  Rossolimo  tests. 

'Handwriting  rank  of  elementary  pupils  based  on  school  grades;  high 
school  students  and  adults  are  compared  within  group  only. 

8Elementary  pupils  are  compared  within  group  only. 

9Elementary  pupils:  discrimination  of  differences  only,  and  compared 
within  group  only. 

Key  to  symbols:      S,   superior; 
A,  average ; 
P,  poor ; 
N,  normal. 

Read  the  table  as  follows:  El  is  poor  in  general  intelligence.  In 
linguistic  ability  the  results  of  the  tests  are  contradictory:  in  one  or  more 
tests  her  record  is  poor,  and  in  one  or  more  tests  it  is  average.  (Personal 
data  are  self-explanatory.) 


108 


TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

TABLE  19  (Continued) 


1 

ll 

1 
5 

| 

1 

s 

1 

I 

jl 

ras  There  Period  of 
elative  Loss  of  Interest  ?  I 

<02 

GO 

0 

O 

£M 

Pfl 

El 

13-10 

6 

Tailor 

Less 

E2 

11-  6 

6 

Insurance 

Yes 

E3 

13-  1 

6 

Policeman 

Yes 

E4 

10-10 

5 

Horticulturist 

Yes 

E5 

10-  9 

5 

Blacksmith 

Less 

E6 

11-  3 

5 

Contractor 

Less 

SI 

19-  8 

IV 

Farmer 

Yes 

Always    drawn.    Spe- 

cial   interest    sixth 

grade 

82 

17-  2 

III 

Mathematician 

Yes 

Early    in    school 

Yes 

S3 

16-  9 

III 

Physicist 

Yes 

Very   early 

No 

S4 

18-  8 

IV 

Physician 

Yes 

Very  early 

S5 

17-  6 

IV 

Patternmaker 

Yes 

First   day  of   school 

No 

S6 

18-10 

III 

Estimator 

Yes 

Age   seven 

Yes 

£7 

19 

IV? 

Physician 

Age  three  or  four 

SS 

15-  3 

I  &  II 

Artist 

Cl 

Adult 

Coll.   4 

Lawyer 

Early  childhood 

02 

Adult 

Col.  Grad. 

03 

Adult 

Coll.    2 

Decorator 

No 

C4 

Adult 

Coll.   4 

Farmer 

Yes 

Early   childhood 

No 

Electrical 

C5 

Adult 

Coll.   4 

Engineer 

Yes 

Early   childhood 

No 

I 


PROFILES  AND  PERSONAL  DATA  109 

TABLE  19   (Continued) 


El     Father  draws  and  letters.     Brothers  and   sister   good   is   school 

drawing. 
E2     Mother  artistic.     Brother  good  in  school  drawing.     Two  uncles 

architects. 

E3     Father  was  best  drawer  in  family,  but  is  untrained. 
E4     Maternal  aunt  of  mother  very  good  in  oil  painting. 
E5      Cousin   is   draftsman. 
E6     Mother  a  former  supervisor  of  art. 

51  Sister  showed  special  aptitude  in  high  school. 

52  Mother's   people   architects.      Father  illustrates  Yes 

53  Younger  brother  and  sisters  draw  with  promise.  Yes 
84     Brother,   special   aptitude   in   school.     Maternal  uncle   and  aunt 

draw  as  "side  interest."  Yes 

55  Uncle  draws — talent  not  developed  Yes 

56  Father  without  training  but  makes  sketches.  Yes 

87  Mother  artist.  Ye» 

88  Father  and  mother  artists. 

Cl  Father  draws  but  lacks  training.  Younger  half-brother  draws 

with  promise.  Yes 

C2     No  artists  among  relatives. 

C3     Father  and  mother  artists.  Yes 

C4  Mother  has  shown  some  ability.  Sister  draws  but  lacks  train- 
ing. Yes 

C5     No  artists  among  relatives. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF 
PERSONS  TALENTED  IN  DRAWING 

Introduction 

In  Chapter  I  we  submitted,  as  one  phase  of  our  prob- 
lem in  this  research,  the  question :  What  are  the  essen- 
tial psycho  physical  characteristics  of  persons  talented  in 
drawing  f  We  are  now  ready  to  bring  together  the  re- 
sults of  our  study  and  of  the  experimental  literature  in 
an  attempt  to  render  at  least  a  partial  answer  to  the 
question  propounded. 

General  Discussion  of  Drawing 

Before  going  to  the  experimental  results  we  shall  do 
well  to  get  clearly  in  mind  some  of  the  facts  concerning 
drawing  which  may  be  known  in  advance  of  experimental 
inquiry.  Let  us  first  recall  what  drawing  is.  The  term 
drawing  designates  a  process  of  causing,  by  means  of 
pencil,  pen,  brush,  or  other  instrument,  certain  lines  or 
areas,  or  both,  to  appear  on  a  given  surface.  If  the  lines 
and  areas  are  intended  by  their  similarity  to  some  object 
in  form,  proportion,  colors,  or  relations,  to  suggest  tl/at 
object  to  the  observer,  the  drawing  is  representative. 
Pictures  are  drawings  of  this  type.  If  the  object  repre- 
sented or  if  the  lines  and  areas  themselves  directly  are 
used  as  the  sign  of  some  other  object  or  idea,  the  drawing 
is  symbolic.  Drawings  of  the  cross  as  a  symbol  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  plus  sign  in  mathematics,  and  even  the  let- 
ters of  our  alphabet  are  symbolic  drawings.  A  third 
type  of  drawing  is  that  which,  without  the  suggestion  of 

110 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS    IN    DRAWING  HI 

any  object  or  idea,  but  on  the  basis  of  the  character  of 
line,  color,  etc.,  makes  immediate  appeal  to  the  aesthetic 
sense  of  the  observer.  Pure  designs  belong  in  this  cate- 
gory. These  three  types  may,  indeed,  appear  in  the 
same  drawing.  In  fact,  every  drawing  exists  as  an  ob- 
ject with  an  aesthetic  value  in  itself,  quite  apart  from 
any  representative  or  symbolic  value  which  it  may  have. 
It  is  just  as  impossible  to  rob  a  drawing  of  all  ideational 
value.  The  situation  is  made  more  complex  by  the  fact 
that  the  objects  or  ideas  suggested  by  the  drawing  may 
be  very  rich  in  associated  ideas  and  feelings.  A  por- 
trait of  a  great  character,  for  example,  has  quite  a  differ- 
ent value  from  a  portrait  of  an  unknown  person,  even 
though  the  presentation  may  be  equally  forceful  in  each. 
There  is,  therefore,  infinite  possibility  of  variation  in 
the  intention  of  the  drawer  as  to  the  effect  which  he 
wishes  to  produce,  and  in  .the  character  of  the  drawing 
which  results  from  his  efforts. 

Our  first  conclusion,  then,  is  that  (1)  Tlie  production 
of  an  effective  drawing  includes  many  theoretically  dis- 
tinguishable a  c  tivities. 

Analyses  of  the  Ability  to  Draw 

The  following  analyses  of  the  ability  to  draw,  taken 
from  the  literature,  will  serve  to  emphasize  the  com-  ] 
plexity  of  the  act  of  drawing,  and  will  present  in  their  * 
context  certain  details  of  drawing  talent  to  which  refer- 
ence will  be  made  in  the  later  discussion.     The  first  is 
taken  from  Albien.1     Albien  found  that  two  contrasting 
types  were  represented  among  his  subjects.     The  first 


'Albien,  G.  Der  Anteil  der  nachkonstruierenden  Tatigkeit  des  Auges 
und  der  Apperception  an  dem  Behalten  und  der  Wiedergabe  einfacher 
Formen.  Zeitschrift  fiir  experimentelle  Padagogik,  5:  1907,  133ff;  6: 
1908,  Iff. 


112  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

of  these  is  the  visual  type.  Persons  belonging  to  this 
type  have  clear  visual  images  of  the  objects  to  be  drawn. 
but  they  vary  greatly  in  their  assimilation  of  the  im- 
pression. With  some  the  image  is  fleeting;  others  prac- 
tice analysis  and  synthesis  of  the  impression  —  these  are 
the  good  drawers.  The  second  type  is  tti 


The  visual  image  is  less  well  impressed  and  they  must 
rely  on  reflection  and  construction  in  their  drawing. 
From  the  general  analysis  of  the  drawer  he  thinks  that 
the  cause  for  the  lack^of  drawing  ability  may  be  quite 
different  in  different  individuals.  The  following  possi- 
bilities are  named:  (1)  deficient  seeing  (lack  of  analyz- 
ing in  the  purely  optical  part  and  in  the  ideal  part  of  the 
seeing)  ;  (2)  indefiniteness  of  the  visual  memory  image 
and  the  weakness  of  the  visual  memory  in  general;  (3) 
defective  guidance  of  the  hand  by  the  visual  Image;  (4) 
too  great  relative  strength  of  construction  and  reflec- 
tion, which  take  the  place  of  the  visual  image  ;  (5)  lack  of 
pure  motor  skill,  which  may  in  turn  be  due  in  part  to  a 
defective  inner  control  of  the  movements  through  the 
kinaesthetic  and  visual  sensations. 

The  following  analysis  from  Meumann2  is  stated  in 
terms  of  the  causes  of  inability  to  draw.  These  causes 
are  as  follows  : 

(1)  The  will  to  analyze  and  to  note  the  forms  and 
colors  of  things  has  not  been  aroused. 

(2)  The  will  to  analyze  may  be  present,  and  yet  for 
a  given  individual  the  analysis  may  be  difficult. 

(3)  The  memory  image  may  be  deficient.     It  may 
have  gaps  or  it  may  be  dim  either  in  form  or 
color.     The  memory  for  spatial  relations  may 
be  defective. 


^Meumann,    E.     Vorlesungen    zur    Einfiihrung   in    die    experimentelle 
Pddagogik,  2d  Ed.,  Bd.  3:  1914,  p,  726. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS   IN  DRAWING  113 

(4)  One  may  lack  the  ability  to  hold  the  memory 
image  in  attention  during  the  act  of  drawing. 

(5)  There  may  be  a  lack  of  co-ordination  of  the 
visual  memory  image  and  the  perceptual  image 
with  the  drawing  movements. 

(6)  The  sight  of  the  drawing  and  its  incongruence 
with  the  memory  image  may  disturb  the  latter. 

(7)  The  drawer  has  not  at  his  command  various 
schemata  such  as  the  trained  drawer  has  de- 
veloped with  which  to  support  his  drawing. 

(8)  One  may  not  understand  how  to  project  three- 
dimensional  space  upon  a  plane. 

(9)  Skill  of  hand  may  be  lacking. 

(10)  One  may  lack  the  artistic  sense. 

(11)  The  inability  to  draw  may  be  due  to  a  com- 
bination of  different  ones  of  the  deficiencies 
above  named. 

Of  these  causes,  those  numbered  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  Meumann 
believes  are  matters  of  talent;  the  others  of  practice, 
except  that  number  8  is  a  matter  both  of  talent  and  of 
practice. 

Ayer's  analysis  of  drawing  is  one  of  the  most  recent.3 
"The  process  of  graphical  expression  is  subject  to  the 
influence  of  three  interrelated  factors,  (1)  a  precon- 
ceived purpose,  (2)  ability  to  see,  and  (3)  ability  to 
represent. "  The  preconceived  purpose  varies  with  the 
individual  and  the  occasion.  Examples  of  purpose  are 
the  making  of  a  visual  representation  and  the  interpre- 
tation of  a  scientific  concept.  The  ability  to  see  or  "to 
discriminate  the  particular  characteristics  of  an  object 
which  should  be  shown  in  a  drawing  depends  upon  both 


8Ayer,  F.  C.     The  Psychology  of  Drawing,  1916,  pp.  157ff. 


114  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

native  talent  and  training.  A  certain  inherent  per- 
spicacity for,  and  a  predisposed  tendency  toward,  ana- 
lytical observation  are  fundamental  and  peculiar  to  each 
type  of  drawing/'  Ability  to  represent  involves  vari- 
ous factors,  (a)  "The  clearness  of  visual  imagery,  par- 
ticularly in  memory  drawing,  is  of  great  importance  to 
accurate  representation  and  is  subject  to  great  individ- 
ual variation. "  (b)  Keflection  may  serve  to  strengthen 
the  visual  image  or  to  substitute  for  it.  (c)  Drawing 
schemata  of  various  common  objects  serve  to  fortify  the 
memory,  (d)  Control  of  hand  movements  is  funda- 
mental to  accurate  drawing,  (e)  For  the  purposes  of 
visual  representation  an  acquired  knowledge  of  drawing 
is  necessary.  (/)  A  final  synthesis  of  the  elements  iso- 
lated during  the  analysis  must  be  made  in  all  drawing. 

Variability  of  Psycho  physical  Characteristics 

In  the  light  of  the  foregoing  discussion,  it  is  not 
strange  that  we  have  found  in  our  experimental  inves- 
tigation no  simple  formula  for  the  constitution  of  draw- 
ing ability.  The  outstanding  characteristic  of  the  per- 
sons whom  we  have  studied  is  the  variability  among  them 
in  their  mental  and  physical  equipment.  The  differences, 
which  in  studies  of  masses  are  obscured  by  measures  of 
central  tendencies,  have  been  in  this  study  of  individuals 
brought  out  in  bold  relief. 

Leaving  the  details  of  these  differences  for  later 
elaboration,  we  may  state  our  second  conclusion  in  the 
following  terms:  (2)  Persons  talented  in  drawing  ex- 
liibit  great  individual  differences  in  tlieir  psychophysical 
characteristics. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS    IN   DRAWING  115 

General  Intelligence  and  Ability  in  Drawing 

The  relation  of  ability  in  drawing  to  general  intelli- 
gence has  attracted  the  attention  of  various  investiga- 
tors. Kerschensteiner4  concludes  -from  his  monumental 
study  that :  ' l  Very  great  talent  for  graphical  expression 
is  in  the  case  of  children^  regularly  connected  with  good 
intellectual  endowment.  But  the  statement  can  not  be 
reversed/'  Exceptions  to  this  rule,  such  as  children 
who  produce  very  good  drawings  and  yet  are  of  low 
general  ability,  seem  to  him  only  apparent.  He  draws 
a  distinction  between  the  memorial  talent  (Ged'dchtnis- 
begabung)  of  these  children  and  the  ideational  talent 
(Vorstellungsbegabung)  of  really  gifted  children.  He 
cites  the  case  of  a  13-year-old  boy  whom  he  had  recom- 
mended for  attendance  at  an  art  school  as  the  result  of 
what  appeared  to  be  superior  performance  in  drawing 
human  figures.  The  boy  did  not  develop  as  -he  had 
thought  he  would  in  view  of  his  previous  performance. 
The  boy,  he  states,  seemed  to  have  difficulty  in  laying 
hold  of  this  whole  form  of  an  object.  This  apprehension 
of  the  total  form  (Auffasung  einer  Gesamtvorstellung)  is 
deemed  fundamental  to  real  artistic  talent,  and  it  is  said 
to  be  possible  only  in  the  case  of  good  intelligence. 

Kik5  quotes  with  approval  the  statement  of  Kerschen- 
steiner that  great  talent  for  graphic  expression  is  always 
connected  with  good  intellectual  endowment.  Before  he 
assents  to  the  statement,  however,  he  defines  the  idea  of 
drawing  talent  so  as  to  except  two  types  of  ability. 
These  exceptions  are:  (1)  mechanical  copying  as  pure 
manual  dexterity,  and  (2)  a  one-sided  talent  for  obser- 


4Kerschensteiner,   G.     Die  Entwicklung  der  zeichnerischen  Begabung, 
1905,  487. 

5Kik,  C.     Die  iibernormale  zeichnenbegabung  bei  Kindern.  Zeitschrift 
fur  angewandte  Psychologic,  2:  1908,  148. 


116  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

vation  developed  at  the  expense  of  other  mental  capac- 
ities, not  a  capacity  resting  upon  memory  and  imagina- 
tion. These  special  abilities  are  not  incompatible,  he 
thinks,  with  low  general  intellectual  ability. 

Albien6  found  in  his  research  no  confirmation  for 
the  thesis  of  Kerschensteiner.  Some  of  his  subjects 
well-endowed  in  drawing  ability  were  not  of  high  intelli- 
gence. The  boy  most  gifted  in  drawing  stood  29th  in 
average  intelligence  in  a  class  of  49. 

Ayer7  found  achievement  in  drawing  "highly  cor- 
related with  achievement  in  other  school  subjects,  aver- 
aging nearly  70  per  cent,  positive.  This  is,  no  doubt, 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  standard  of  drawing  instruction 
calls  for  a  variety  of  mental  and  motor  processes  which 
are  the  same  as,  or  similar  to,  those  found  in  other  school 
subjects.  Ability  in  representative  drawing  [drawing 
reproducing  the  actual  appearance  of  an  object  as  accu- 
rately as  possible]  is  not  correlated  with  achievement  in 
school  subjects  when  it  is  isolated  from  the  other  factors 
of  school  drawing."  The  separate  factors  included  in 
the  drawing  grades  upon  which  this  correlation  is  based 
are  "  (a)  ability  in  representative  drawing,  (6)  ability 
in  designing,  (c)  ability  in  artistic  discrimination,  (d) 
ability  with  color,  washes,  shading,  etc.,  (e)  attendance, 
(/)  discipline,  and  (g)  vocational  interest."  The  grades 
are  those  of  141  normal-school  students. 

In  our  own  study  the  results  which  have  been  pre- 
sented make  possible  some  positive  statement  concerning 
the  general  intelligence  of  fifteen  subjects,  to  each  of 
whom,  in  addition  to  other  tests,  the  Binet-Simon  (Stan- 
ford Revision)  tests  were  given.  Some  of  the  other  Ih- 


8Op.  cit.,  Bd.  6,  p.  34. 
70p.  cit.,  p.  140. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS   IN    DRAWING  117 

vestigations  have  suffered  from  the  lack  of  an  adequate 
measure  of  intelligence.  Of  the  fifteen  subjects,  three 
(S3,  S5,  and  E6)  may  be  characterized  as  having  very 
superior  general  intelligence;  five  (Cl,  C5,  SI,  84,  and 
JE4)  as  having  superior  general  intelligence;  four  (C4, 
82,  S6  and  E2)  as  having  average  general  intelligence; 
two  (E3  and  E5)  as  having  slightly  inferior  general  in- 
telligence; and  one  (El)  as  having  markedly  inferior 
general  intelligence.  In  addition  to  these  to  whom  Binet 
tests  have  been  given,  three  others  may  be  classified  with 
some  assurance.  The  average  results  of  16  tests  given 
to  the  Culver  group  seem  sufficient  to  be  taken  as  an  in- 
dication of  the  mental  ability  of  the  cadets.  If  so,  we 
may  class  87  apd  88  as  having  average  general  intelli- 
gence; perhaps  with  reference  to  an  unselected  group 
they  would  rank  even  higher.  The  general  intelligence 
of  C3  appears  to  be  inferior  when  estimated  from  the 
tests  and  his  college  performance.  The  tests  of  C2  have 
not  been  extensive  enough  to  make  possible  a  sure  esti- 
mate of  his  general  intelligence.  His  school  perform- 
ance, however,  would  place  him  in  the  superior  group. 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  (3)  A  certain  elemen- 
tary ability  in  graphic  representation,  such  as  is  required 
for  success  with  elementary-school  drawing,  is  indepen- 
dent, or  partially  independent,  of  general  intelligence. 

How  often  we  may  expect  the  combination  of  good 
drawing  ability  of  this  elementary  sort  and  poor  men- 
tality, our  data  do  not  give  us  the  means  of  judging. 
Perhaps,  owing  to  the  selection  of  pupils  in  the  upper 
grades  on  the  basis  of  their  success  in  studies  requiring 
a  fair  degree  of  general  intelligence,  the  number  of  these 
cases  is  larger  than  appears. 


118  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

A  complete  diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing,  however, 
requires  a  measure  of  the  general  intelligence  of  the 
drawer.  Although  experimental  studies  of  tlie  abilities 
required  in  various  pursuits  which  depend  upon  draw- 
ing ability  are  lacking,  we  may  be  fairly  sure  from  other 
well-known  facts  that  varying  degrees  of  general  intelli- 
gence are  required  for  success  in  the  different  art  call- 
ings. We  should  not  expect  successful  copying  of  a  de- 
sign, for  example,  to  require  as  great  general  intelligence 
as  successful  creation  of  a  picture  representing,  let  us 
say,  the  simple  dignity  of  toil.  Before  one  gets  very 
far  in  art  expression,  a  great  number  of  supplementary 
factors  must  be  brought  to  the  support  of  the  ability  to 
represent  graphically  simple  objects.  Even  the  tech- 
nique itself  becomes  progressively  more  difficult.  More 
and  more,  conceptual  factors — color  harmony  and  color 
contrast,  the  values  of  light  and  shade,  the  devices  for 
representation  of  linear  perspective,  the  meaning  of  the 
lines  of  the  face,  the  historical  account  of  the  effective- 
ness of  various  methods,  the  representation  of  ideas 
rather  than  simple  objects,  etc. — enter  into  the  process, 
and  ability  to  master  these  conceptual  factors  is  a  pre- 
requisite of  successful  performance. 

The  study  of  our  subjects  has  also  given  us  some 
basis  for  inference  concerning  the  relation  of  general 
intelligence  to  future  development  in  drawing.  We  have 
already  remarked  (Chapter  VI)  that  C3,  who  is  inferior 
in  general  intelligence,  seems  unable  to  profit  rapidly 
by  the  advanced  instruction  in  technique  offered  in  the 
art  courses  of  the  University.  Likewise,  we  have  the 
testimony  of  the  art  teacher  that  El,  whose  general  in- 
telligence is  markedly  inferior,  shows  less  originality 
than  ability  in  graphic  representation. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS    IN    DRAWING  119 

It  is  our  conclusion,  then,  that  (4)  General  intelli- 
gence conditions  the  ability  of  drawers  (a)  to  acquire 
tlie  advanced  technique  into  which  conceptual  factors 
enter,  and  (b)  to  create  original  drawings  of  merit. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  can  not  deny  the  possession 
of  an  elementary  ability  in  graphic  expression  by  persons 
of  low  intelligence.  The  practical  problem  becomes  one, 
then,  of  diagnosing  a  pupil 's  ability,  prescribing  for  Mm 
the  training  which  shall  develop  his  talent  in  the  most 
useful  way,  and  directing  him  into  the  type  of  work  with 
which  he  can  have  the  greatest  success.  We  have  nor 
fulfilled  our  duty  to  the  drawer  of  low  intelligence,  when 
we  have  told  him  that  he  can  never  become  a  great 
painter,  architect,  or  cartoonist.  We  must  be  prepared 
to  develop  hi^talent-an4--to  tell  him  ofsome  place  where 
he  can  use  it  to  advantage.  Perhaps,  for  example,  he 
can  become  a  sign  painter  or  a  copier  of  decorative  pat- 
terns. 

At  the  other  extreme  is  the  pupil  of  high  general 
intelligence  and  talent  for  graphic  representation.  When 
we  have  diagnosed  his  ability,  we  shall  have  reason  to 
expect  that  he  will  respond  favorably  to  our  treatment 
of  him  as  a  prospective  creative  artist.  We  shall  not  be 
content  to  place  him  in  some  position  where  he  will  be 
a  mere  copyist. 

Linguistic  Ability  and  Drawing 

Binet  mentions  in  his  account  of  the  psychology  of 
Tade  Styka8  two  types  of  intelligence ;  the  sensory  and 
the  verbal.  Persons  belonging  to  the  first  type,  he  says, 
live  in  the  exterior  world  and  like  to  use  their  senses 


8Binet,     A.     La     psychologie     artistique     de     Tade     Styka.     L'Annee 
Psychologique,   15:    1908    (1909),   334f. 


120  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

and  their  hands.  They  are  painters,  sculptors,  and  mu- 
sicians. Persons  belonging  to  the  verbal  type  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  talent  for  words  and  for  abstract 
ideas  of  which  the  word  is  the  key.  Orators,  journalists, 
mathematicians,  and  many  scientists  belong  to  this  type. 
He  states,  however,  that  the  types  are  not  contradictory ; 
a  person  may  belong  to  both  types. 

Ivanof9  found  the  correlation  between  drawing  and 
language  (reading,  declamation,  orthography,  and  gram- 
mar) contradictory  and  hence  uncertain. 

Ayer10  found  a  strong  positive  correlation  (r=.68) 
between  achievement  in  drawing  and  English  as  shown 
by  school  grades  in  the  case  of  144  normal-school  stu- 
dents. When,  however,  the  drawings  secured  in  a  test 
of  51  high-school  students  were  compared  with  the  aver- 
age of  the  class-standings  of  the  same  students  in  science, 
English,  Latin,  and  mathematics,  no  correlation  was 
shown.  He  concludes  that  "ability  in  representative 
drawing  is  not  correlated  with  achievement  in  school 
subjects  when  it  is  isolated  from  the  other  factors  of 
school  drawing." 

In  our  study  we  have  found  linguistic  ability  a  better 
indicator  of  general  intelligence  than  of  either  general 
motor  ability  or  specific  drawing  ability.  There  may  be 
some  practical  value  in  referring  to  motor  (or  sensory) 
and  verbal  types,  but  the  classification  of  an  individual 
in  one  of  these  types  is  not  sufficient  to  indicate  whether 
or  not  he  can  draw.  As  far  as  we  may  judge  from  our 
limited  number  of  cases,  we  may  conclude  that  (5) 
Linguistic  ability  and  talent  in  drawing  are  related  only 
from  fhe  point  of  view  that  general  intelligence  and 

8Ivanof,   E.     Le  dessin   des  gcoliers  de  la   suisse  romande.     Archives 
de  psychologie,  8:  1908,  119. 
100p.  cit.,  pp.  139ff. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS   IN   DRAWING  121 

talent  in  drawing  are  related;  linguistic  ability  is  no 
index  of  ability  or  lack  of  ability  in  graphic  representa- 
tion. 

General  Motor  Ability  and  Drawing 

The  reference  to  Binet  in  the  preceding  section  defi- 
nitely connects  a  sensory  type  of  intelligence  with  ability 
in  drawing.  Kik,11  in  a  discussion  of  the  relation  of 
drawing  ability  to  general  intelligence,  mentions  a  "me- 
chanical copying  as  pure  skill  of  hand"  (mechanische 
Kopieren  als  blosse  Handfertigkeit) .  The  question  still 
remains,  of  course,  whether  this  skill  of  hand  is  uni- 
formly connected  with  a  general  motor  superiority. 

The  results  of  our  tests  reveal,  in  the  first  place, 
that  general  motor  ability  is  a  complex  of  varying 
factors.  One  who  stands  high  in  a  given  motor  test 
may  stand  low  in  another.  Moreover,  we  found  our 
subjects  making  uniformly  high  (average  or  low)  rec- 
ords neither  in  a  single  motor  test  nor  in  the  average  of 
the  tests.  One  of  our  apparently  most  gifted  subjects, 
S3,  made  low  or  average  right-hand  records  in  three  of 
the  motor  tests.  It  is  true  that  the  i '  standard ' '  records, 
with  which  the  individual  performances  are  compared, 
are  based  on  a  limited  number  of  cases,  but  the  varia- 
bility in  the  records  of  our  own  subjects  is  sufficient  to 
establish  the  general  statement  made  above.  The  near- 
est approach  to  uniformity  is  in  the  strength  of  grip, 
but  the  uniformity  is  far  from  complete  even  in  this  test. 

Our  conclusion  may  be  stated  in  the  following  term*; 
(6)  The  motor  ability  which  underlies  talent  for  draw- 
ing is  specific  rather  titan  general;  talent  for  drawing    y 
does  not  presuppose  a  general  jnotor  superiority. 


11  Op.  eft.,  p.  148. 


122  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

Handwriting  and  Drawing 

In  the  general  discussion  of  drawing  at  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter,  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  are  drawings  of  a  certain  type.  One  would 
think,  therefore,  that  ability  in  handwriting  might  be  an 
index  of  a  corresponding  ability  in  drawing.  The  re- 
sults of  our  tests,  however,  do  not  show  that  persons  wno 
draw  well  also  write  well.  It  may  be,  of  course,  that 
persons  who  are  talented  in  drawing  have  a  relatively 
greater  capacity  for  development  also  in  handwriting, 
but,  if  this  is  true,  it  is  not  evident  from  the  achieve- 
ment in  handwriting  which  results  from  ordinary  school 
training.  There  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  important  dif- 
ferences between  handwriting  and  drawing,  regarded  as 
processes.  In  handwriting,  a  limited  number  of  sym- 
bols recur  in  substantially  the  same  form  time  and  again ; 
in  drawing,  the  objects  to  be  represented  or  figures  to  be 
copied  are  much  more  numerous  and  varied.  Further- 
more, the  differences  in  the  writing  and  drawing  move- 
ments bring  them  into  sharp  contrast.  Freeman12  em- 
phasizes the  difference  between  handwriting  and  draw- 
ing by  giving  one  as  an  example  of  sensori-motor  learn- 
ing and  the  other  as  an  example  of  perceptual  learning : 

"In  learning  to  write,  the  child  develops  habits  of  movement  and 
acquires  the  recognition  of  form,  but  since  the  motor  coordination  is  the 
more  prominent  element,  writing  is  taken  as  an  illustration  of  sensori- 
motor  learning.  Drawing  also  includes  both  the  recognition  of  form  and 
its  representation,  but  in  this  case  the  element  of  recognition  is  more 
prominent,  and  therefore  drawing  is  taken  as  an  illustration  of  perceptual 
learning." 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  (7)  Achievement  in 
handwriting  and  ability  in  drawing  are  relatively  inde- 
pendent of  each  other. 


^Freeman,    F.    N.     The   Psychology   of  the   Common  Branches,   1916, 
p.  34. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS    IN   DRAWING  123 

Flexibility  of  Motor  Habit  and  Drawing 

It  was  thought  that  the  ability  to  form  the  associa- 
tions required  in  drawing  might  be  inferred  from  a  gen- 
eral flexibility  of  sensori-motor  habit.  This  supposition 
was  not  confirmed,  however,  by  the  results  of  the  mirror- 
drawing  test.  It  is  true  that  11  of  our  17  subjects  who 
took  this  test  are  ranked  as  superior  in  relation  to  others 
of  the  groups  with  whom  they  are  compared.  A  con- 
sideration of  sex  differences,  however,  will  modify  our 
judgment  of  this  apparent  superiority.  Eight  of  the  11 
who  made  superior  records  are  girls  and  women,  and  the 
comparison  in  which  the  superiority  appears  is  made 
with  members  of  the  opposite  sex.  But  girls  and  women 
have  generally  been  found  superior  to  boys  and  men  in 
the  mirror-drawing  test.13  Miss  Calfee  found  in  a  test 
of  college  freshmen  that  only  6  per  cent  of  the  men 
reached  the  women's  median,  while  90.4  per  cent  of  the 
women  reached  the  men's  median.14  If  we  compare  the 
time  taken  by  our  high-school  and  adult  subjects  in  the 
mirror-drawing  test  with  the  median  time  (66  seconds) 
reported  by  Miss  Weidensall15  for  36  college  girls,  we 
find  that  only  two  surpassed  the  median  record.  It  is 
possible,  therefore,  that  the  superior  records  of  some  of 
our  subjects  are  to  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  sex  differ- 
ences rather  than  on  the  basis  of  differences  which  are 
directly  related  to  ability  in  drawing.  Moreover,  a  few 
of  our  records,  as  they  stand,  are  average  or  poor. 

It  is  not  easy  to  interpret  the  results;  perhaps  we 
would  best  leave  the  discussion  with  the  statement  that 


13Whipple's  Manual,  pp.   490ff. 

14Calfee,  Marguerite.  College  Freshmen  and  Four  General  Intelligence 
Tests.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  4:  1913,  223-231. 

^Weidensall,  Jean.  The  Mentality  of  the  Criminal  Woman.  Educa- 
tional Psychology  Monographs,  No.  14,  1916,  p.  223. 


124  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

our  results  are  insufficient  for  a  conclusion.  It  is  safe 
to  say,  however,  that  (8)  There  is  an  elementary  drawing 
ability  which  exists  apart  from  a  general  flexibility  of 
mtftor  habit  as  far  as  this  is  revealed  by  the  mirror- 
drawing  test;  whether  high  standing  in  the  mirror-draw- 
ing test  indicates  a  constitution  favorable  to  development 
in  drawing,  we  do  not  know. 

Sensory  Discrimination  and  Drawing 

Free-hand  drawing  requires  frequent  judgment  of 
distances,  lengths,  curves,  and  magnitudes.  The  ques- 
tion arises,  then,  whether  persons  who  are  talented  in 
drawing  have  also  a  superior  power  of  sensory  discrim- 
ination. We  applied  our  tests  of  discrimination  of  dif- 
ferences and  proportions  (Number  37  and  38)  to  9  of 
the  subjects  of  this  study,  and  the  first  of  these  tests  to 
6  others.  While  our  background  of  comparative  results 
is  quite  meager,  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  our 
subjects  have  the  ability  to  make  finer  discriminations 
of  magnitudes  than  have  persons  of  similar  training  but 
less  talent  in  drawing.  Notwithstanding  this  statement, 
however,  tests  of  sensory  discrimination  would  seem  to 
have  a  diagnostic  value.  It  is  important  for  pedagogical 
purposes  to  know  whether  a  pupil  judges  lengths,  angles, 
and  curves  well  or  poorly,  as  it  is  important  for  voca- 
tional purposes  to  know  whether  a  given  drawer  may  be 
expected  to  be  'true'  to  the  proportions  of  his  copy. 

We  may  conclude,  then,  that  (9)  The  ability  to  dis- 
criminate fine  differences  in  visual  magnitudes  varies 
in  persons  talented  in  drawing;  the  measurement  of  this 
ability  is  of  value  in  a  determination  of  the  factors  of 
drawing  ability  regarded  as  a  complex. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS    IN    DRAWING  125 

Observation  and  Drawing 

Obviously,  one  must  see  before  one  can  draw.  In- 
deed, what  one  sees  is,  or  at  least  includes,  what  one 
draws.  The  references  to  Meumann  and  Ayer  in  the 
earlier  part  of  this  chapter  emphasized  the  part  played 
by  analytical  observation  in  the  ability  to  draw.  Judd 
and  Cowling10  made  a  study  of  the  perceptual  process 
in  drawing  and  found  characteristic  differences  in  the 
way  in  which  the  perception  of  a  simple  form  is  built 
up.  At  the  extremes  are  those  individuals  who  proceed 
from  details  to  the  whole  form,  and  those  who  get  the 
general  outline  in  mind  first.  Kerschensteiner17  states 
that  the  development  of  graphical  expression  is  most  in- 
timately connected  with  the  apprehension  of  the  total  * 
form  of  objects.  The  effect  of  practice  upon  visual  ap- 
prehension was  studied  by  Whipple,18  Foster,19  and 
Dallenbach.20  The  first  two,  working  with  adult  sub- 
jects, found  some  improvement  with  practice,  but  Ex- 
plained it  on  the  basis  of  adaptation  and  the  develop- 
ment of  assimilative  devices,  rather  than  on  the  basis  of 
an  improvement  in  the  power  of  visual  apprehension 
per  se.  Dallenbach  working  with  school  children,  found  / 
an  initial  rapid  improvement  and  a  later  slower  improve-  v 
ment  with  practice.  He  found  also  a  direct  but  small 


16Judd,  C.  H.,  and  Cowling,  D.  J.  Studies  in  Perceptual  Develop- 
ment. Psychological  Review  Monographs,  8,  1907,  349-369. 

17Kerschensteiner,  G.  Die  Entwiclclung  tier  zeichnerischen  Begdbung, 
1905,  p.  486. 

18Whipple,  G.  M.  The  Effect  of  Practice  upon  the  Range  of  Visual 
Attention  and  of  Visual  Apprehension.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
1:  1910,  250-262. 

19Foster,  W.  S.  The  Effect  of  Practice  upon  Visualizing  and  upon 
the  Reproduction  of  Visual  Impressions.  Journal  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology, 2:  1911,  11-22. 

^Dallenbach,  K.  M.  The  Effect  of  Practise  upon  Visual  Apprehension 
in  School  Children.  Journal  of  Educational  Psycholof/ij,  5:  1914,  321-334, 
387-404. 


126  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

correlation  of  visual  apprehension  with  age.  Each  of  the 
three  studies  revealed  marked  individual  differences. 

In  our  study  we  used  four  tests  (Numbers  32,  33,  34, 
and  35)  which  seem  to  have  some  direct  relation  to  ob- 
servation. The  cancellation  test,  the  Rossolimo  test,  and 
the  stamp  test  demand  analytical  observation.  The  spot- 
pattern  test  demands  a  knowledge  of  details,  but  also 
gives  ample  play  to  the  power  of  seeing  a  form  as  a  whole. 
The  stamp  test  proved  to  be  of  doubtful  value,  because 
of  the  introduction  of  the  linguistic  factor  into  the  test 
in  the  writing  of  the  description.  The  cancellation  test 
involves  other  factors21  which  may  quite  obscure  the 
ability  to  observe  analytically.  The  Eossolimo  test  is 
rather  too  brief  for  reliable  results.  And  for  the  spot- 
pattern  test  we  have  lacked  comparable  data.  Our  re- 
sults for  the  spot-pattern  test,  however,  are  sufficient  to 
indicate  wide  individual  differences  even  among  persons 
talented  in  drawing.  In  the  cancellation  test,  nearly 
all  of  our  subjects  made  superior  or  average  records.  In 
the  Eossolimo  test,  only  one  of  our  subjects  in  the  higft- 
school  and  adult  group,  for  comparison  with  the  mem- 
bers of  which  we  have  a  few  comparable  records,  made 
a  poor  score. 

Our  conclusion  must,  therefore,  be  tentative:  (10) 
While  persons  who  are  talented  in  drawing  exhibit  con- 
siderable individual  differences  in  tests  of  observa- 
tion, these  tests  appear  to  have  some  diagnostic  value  for 
talent  in  drawing;  their  relation,  however,  to  ability 
in  drawing  is  not  clearly  made  out  in  our  study. 


21Cf.  Whipple's  Manual,  p.  305:  "The  test  is  rather  remarkable  for 
the  variety  of  forms  it  has  assumed,  the  variety  of  names  ,that  have  been 
given  it,  and  the  divergence  of  statement  as  to  what  it  really  measures." 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS   IN   DRAWING  127 

Imagery  and  Drawing 

The  part  played  by  the  image  in  the  drawing  act  has 
been  discussed  by  different  investigators.  The  references 
to  Albien,  Meumann,  and  Ayer  in  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter  may  be  taken  as  examples  of  this  discussion. 
The  importance  of  clear  visual  imagery  is  especially  em- 
phasized. Ayer  writes,  for  example:22 

"The  clearness  of  visual  imagery,  particularly  in  memory  drawing,  is 
of  great  importance  to  accurate  representation  and  is  subject  to  great 
individual  variation.  With  different  individuals  the  drawing  image  may 
be  (1)  clear  and  distinct,  (2)  vague  and  incomplete,  (3)  distinct,  but  in- 
accurate, or  (4)  changeable  and  evanescent  when  the  act  of  drawing 
begins." 

On  the  other  hand,  Foster  found  in  the  study  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  section  that  :23 

"In  no  case  did  practice  increase  the  ability  or  even  the  tendency  to        y 
visualize.     The    best    reproducer    of    visual    impressions    was    the    poorest 
visualizer,  and  relied  almost  wholly  upon  verbal  cues  for  recall." 

Binet's  tests  of  Tade  Styka,  the  young  painter,  did 
not  reveal  an  exceptional  visual  memory.  Binet  writes : 

"I  shall  add  also  the  conclusion  that  one  may  be  an  admirable  draughts- 
man with  a  very  ordinary  visual  memory."24 

In  our  investigation  with  the  use  of  the  Betts  ques- 
tionary,  six  of  nine  subjects  reported  visual  imagery  of 
superior  clearness  in  comparison  with  the  Betts  results ; 
one  reported  visual  imagery  of  average  clearness;  and 
two  reported  visual  imagery  markedly  below  the  aver- 
age in  clearness.  Auditory  imagery,  with  two  minor 
exceptions,  \vas  reported  as  of  about  the  same  clearness 
as  the  visual.  Only  one  subject  reported  superior  kin- 
aesthetic  imagery. 

In  reporting  these  results,  attention  should  be  invited 
to  the  fact  that  our  subjects  were  untrained  in  intro- 
spection. We  are  frankly  skeptical  of  the  ability  of  un- 


^Op.  cit.,  p.  159. 
MLoc.  cit.,  p.  11. 
^Op.  cit.,  p.  330. 


128  .  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

trained  observers  to  give  reliable  accounts  of  their  imag- 
inal  processes.25  We  may  at  least  offer  the  conclusion 
that  (11)  Our  'introspective'  records  do  not  support  the 
view  that  superior  clearness  of  visual  (or  kinaesthetic) 
imagery  is  essential  to  talent  in  drawing.  Logically, 
perhaps,  clear  visual  imagery  is  a  great  asset  to 
the  drawer;  but  the  matter  is  one  for  decision  by 
scientific  inquiry  rather  than  by  logic.  The  relation  of 
imaginal  processes  to  drawing  is  still  a  subject  for  inves- 
tigation by  the  introspective  psychologist. 

Drawing  and  Memory  for  Visual  Forms 

In  a  test  of  memory  for  visual  forms  we  may  bq 
somewhat  more  certain  of  our  results  with  untrained 
observers — and  we  are  interested  in  tests  for  children — 
than  we  can  be  in  an  introspective  inquiry  concerning 
imaginal  processes.  Our  results  with  tests  of  the  mem- 
ory for  visual  forms  show  wide  individual  differences. 
We  conclude,  however,  that  (12)  Tests  of  the  memory  for 
visual  forms  have  value  in  determining  the  characteris- 
tics of  one's  drawing  ability;  but  one  may  have  a  certain 
ability  in  graphic  representation  without  a  good  memory 
for  visual  forms,  other  than  the  immediate  memory  re- 
quired in  looking  from  the  object  to  tlie  drawing  surface. 
The  type  of  test  which  appears  to  be  of  particular  value 
is  that  requiring  a  test  of  the  memory  by  graphic  repro- 
duction— represented  by  our  Test  Number  27. 

Drawing  and  Mental  Manipulation  of  Spatial  Forms 

In  our  tests  of  the  power  mentally  to  manipulate 
spatial  forms,  (Numbers  13,  14,  15,  and  16)  we  found 


25Compare   the   writings   of    introspective   psychologists..     For   example, 
see  Titchener,  E.  B.     A.  Beginner's  Psychology,  1915,  p.  20ff. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS   IN   DRAWING  129 

great  individual  differences  among  our  subjects  and  also 
in  some  cases  marked  differences  in  performances  of  the 
same  person.  The  significance  of  these  differences 
is  not  clearly  made  out.  Probably  performance  in  the 
more  difficult  of  the  tests  is  rather  directly  related  to 
general  intelligence,  in  that  they  require  the  holding  of 
an  object  in  attention  and  uninterrupted  application 
for  a  considerable  time.  The  factor  of  familiarity  with 
the  material,  as,  for  example,  the  familiarity  with  geo- 
metrical names  and  objects,  appears  also  to  be  important. 
At  all  events,  it  is  important  for  instructional  purposes 
to  determine  whether  a  pupil  has  the  power  of  concen- 
trated attention  to  a  difficult  task  in  the  type  of  material 
with  which  he  must  deal. 

Our  conclusion  is  that  (13)  Persons  talented  in  draw- 
ing show  wide  individual  differences  in  their  power  men- 
tally to  manipulate  spatial  forms;  tests  of  this  ability 
are  of  value  to  determine  in  detail  the  nature  of  the 
draining  talent. 

Drawing  and  Invention  from  Graphic  Forms 

Inventiveness  is  obviously  a  great  element  of  achieve- 
ment in  art.  It  would  be  desirable,  if  it  were  possible, 
to  measure  the  inventiveness  of  pupils  by  means  of  tests. 
We  used  two  tests  of  invention  from  graphic  forms,  the 
ink-blots  tests  and  the  pictorial  imagination  test.  Our 
experience  with  them,  however,  indicates  that  as  con- 
ducted in  this  experiment  they  are  of  doubtful  value. 
We  are  compelled  to  state  merely  a  negative  conclusion : 
(14)  No  clear  relation  is  apparent  between  ability  in 
drawing  and  the  invention  from  graphic  forms  which 
was  required  in  our  tests. 


130  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

Drawing  and  Aesthetic  Judgment 

Great  achievement  in  art  demands  a  good  judgment 
of  aesthetic  values.  Meumann,  in  the  reference  cited 
early  in  this  chapter,  has  called  attention  to  the  need  ol 
an  artistic  sense  for  ability  in  drawing.  He  thinks,  how- 
ever, that  this  artistic  sense  is  a  product  of  training 
rather  than  a  matter  of  endowment.  Prosser,26  a  prac- 
tical worker  in  the  field  of  art  education,  recognizes  tne 
problem  of  training  in  art  appreciation  as  a  vital  one. 
He  believes  that,  if  we  would  have  persons  to  appreciate 
aesthetic  excellence  in  any  particular  line — pictures, 
statuary,  clothing,  house  furnishings,  and  so  on — we 
must  train  them  specifically  for  this  appreciation. 

In  our  tests  (Numbers  17  and  18)  we  found  a  wide 
variability  between  the  results  of  the  two  tests  and 
among  the  performances  of  different  individuals  with 
the  same  test.  The  Thorndike  test  apparently  is  de- 
signed to  measure  the  aesthetic  appreciation  of  abstract 
graphic  forms.  We  are  not  convinced,  however,  that  It 
is  a  reliable  measure  of  this  appreciation.  The  Illinois 
test  requires  judgments  between  drawings,  pictures,  ana 
designs.  Many  of  the  principles  upon  which  the  excel- 
lence of  these  figures  is  to  be  judged  may  be  conceptu- 
alized and  stated.  Consider,  for  example,  the  principles 
of  proportion,  similarity  of  treatment,  and  color  com- 
bination. We  are,  therefore,  at  a  loss  to  know  how  much 
the  performances  in  this  test  were  based  upon  a  native 
aesthetic  ability  and  how  much  they  were  the  result  of 
training.  It  is  quite  clear,  however,  that  (15)  Quality 
of  performance  in  graphic  representation  and  quality  of 


26Prosser,  C.  A.,  Director  of  Dunwoody  Institute,  Minneapolis,  Minne- 
sota. Art  Training  for  Industry.  Bulletin  of  the  Western  Drawing  and 
Manual  Training  Association,  Vol.  1:  No.  2  (Annual  Report  for  1916), 
pp.  30f. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS   IN   DRAWING  131 

performance  in  aesthetic  judgment  are  independent,  or 
at  least  partially  independent  variables.     Training  in' 
graphical  representation  is  not  sufficient  to  assure  good 
aesthetic  taste. 

Interest  and  Talent  in  Drawing 

Sargent  and  Miller  have  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  apparent  talent  may  consist  in  a  special  interest 
rather  than  in  an  endowment  of  skill  :27 

....  "As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  representation  of  isolated  things  does 
not  furnish  an  adequate  motive  for  children  except  for  the  few  to  whom 
form  and  color  of  ithemselves  make  an  unusually  strong  appeal  and  awaken 
a  vivid  inner  experience.  For  these  few,  desirous  to  express  what  so 
strongly  impresses  them,  ordinary  nature  and  object  drawing  is  sufficient, 
and  they  make  excellent  progress  in  it.  These  are  the  children  with  so- 
called  'special  talent.'  In  most  cases  this  type  of  talent  in  elementary 
schools  appears  to  consist  primarily  in  a  special  interest  and  not  in  a 
special  endowment  of  skill.  This  interest  is  related  to  skill  as  cause  to 
effect.  In  other  words,  if  we  can  induce  an  equal  interest  on  the  part 
of  other  children,  they  will  develop  equal  skill.  One  of  the  significant 
facts  brought  out  in  the  course  of  the  work  previously  described  is  that 
not  infrequently  children  who  show  under  ordinary  circumstances  no  in- 
dications of  talent  will,  when  the  appeal  to  their  particular  interests  is 
found,  equal  or  surpass  in  skill  those  who  appeared  at  first  to  be  gifted 
artistically." 

We  have  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this  quotation  ex- 
presses a  very  important  truth.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
just  as  true  that  we  tend  to  be  interested  in  the  things 
which  we  are  able  to  do  well.  One  of  our  subjects  ($£}, 
it  will  be  recalled,  reports  that  he  lost  interest  in  drawing 
when  it  appeared  that  he  did  not  succeed  in  water-color 
drawing  as  well  as  others  in  the  schools,  and  that  even 
today  he  dislikes  that  type  of  drawing.  The  same  sub- 
ject reports  a  revival  of  interest  in  drawing  when  he  dis- 
covered that  he  could  draw  better  than  the  pupils  in  the 
schools  which  he  then  attended.  That  interest  and 
achievement  in  drawing  are  positively  correlated  is  clear 
enough.  The  number  of  our  subjects  who  report  an  in- 


C7Sargent,    Walter,    and    Miller,    Elizabeth.     How    Children    Learn    to 
Draw,  1916,  p.  235. 


132  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

terest  in  drawing  very  early  in  life  emphasizes  the  close- 
ness of  this  correlation.     We  conclude,  therefore,  that 

(16)  Interest  may  indicate  either  a  superior  innate  abil- 
ity or  merely  a  high  development  of  a  rather  ordinary 
endowment,  but  it  is  of  immense  practical  importance 
as  an  index  of  the  energy  ivhich  one  is  willing  to  expend 
in  the  development  of  one's  ability  and  in  practical 
achievement. 

Summary 

We  have  seen  that  there  is  great  variability  in  the 
mental  and  physical  characteristics  of  persons  who  are 
talented  in  drawing.  The  nature  of  some  of  these  differ- 
ences has  been  reviewed,  and  a  number  of  conclusions 
have  been  expressed  concerning  particular  characteris- 
tics in  their  relation  to  drawing.  It  is  now  clear  that 

(17)  There  is  no  one  psychophysical  constitution  for  tal- 
ent in  drawing;  the  essential  characteristics  vary  with  the 
type    of    talent    possessed.    Every    normal    individual 
should  be  thought  of  as  possessing  in  some  degree  all  of 
the  elemental   abilities  which  make  drawing  possible. 
When  the  strength  of  an  element  or  combination  of  ele- 
ments varies  above  the  "average"  or  when  the  elements 
enter  into  a  particularly  favorable  combination  or  ap- 
propriate pattern,  we  have  a  talent  as  defined  in  this 
study,  an  ability  which  tends  toward  superior  achieve- 
ment. 

The  fact  that  the  essential  characteristics  vary  does 
not  prevent  our  listing  some  of  the  factors  which 
seem  closely  related  to  ability  in  drawing.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  make  the  list  complete;  indeed 
the  list  of  all  the  abilities  which  have  any  bearing 
upon  achievement  in  drawing  would  be  extremely  long. 


PSYCHOPHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS    IN    DRAWING  133 

It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  the  items  in  the  list  are 
neither  mutually  exclusive  nor  elemental  in  the  sense 
that  they  cannot  be  further  analyzed.  It  is  believed 
necessary  only  that  the  separate  items  have  a  rather 
close  relation  to  ability  in  drawing,  that  they  be  capable 
of  description  and  recognition  apart  from  the  complex 
in  which  they  are  observed,  and  that  so  far  as  possible 
they  be  measurable.  (18)  The  following  characteristics, 
each  an  independent  or  partially  independent  variable, 
seem  closely  related  to  ability  in  drawing: 

(1)  The  ability  mentally  to  note  a  visual  form,  and, 
by  certain  lines  and  areas,  to  reproduce  it  or  sig- 
nificant features  of  it. 

(2)  Ability  to  observe. 

(3)  Ability  to  select  from  a  complex  visual  situation 
the  most  representative  and  the  most  beautiful 
aspects. 

(4)  Memory  for  visual  forms. 

(5)  Ability  mentally  to  manipulate  visual  forms. 

(6)  Ability  to  control  hand  movements  in  accord- 
ance with  visual  percept  or  image. 

(7)  Ability  to  invent,  to  bring  together  into  new 
artistic  combinations  the  elements  of  different 
visual  experiences. 

(8)  Ability  to  judge  the  beautiful  in  line,  form, 
color,  and  composition. 

(9)  Ability  to  discriminate  differences  in  color. 

(10)  Ability   to   discriminate   differences  in  visual 
magnitude. 

(11)  Acuity  of  vision. 

(12)  Interest  in  the  act  and  products  of  drawing. 

(13)  General  intelligence. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  TEST  METHOD  AND  THE  DIAGNOSIS  OF 
TALENT  IN  DEAWING 

Introduction 

The  second  question  which  was  raised  in  the  state- 
ment of  the  problem  of  this  research  was  this :  How  may 
the  test  method  be  used  in  the  diagnosis  of  talent  in 
drawing?  The  discussion  of  the  preceding  chapter  bears 
incidentally  upon  this  topic,  and  at  different  places 
earlier  in  the  text  pertinent  suggestions  have  appeared. 
It  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter,  however,  to  con- 
sider the  question  more  specifically. 

The  test  method  needs  no  defense ;  its  scientific  valid- 
ity is  well  established.1  And  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  I 
that  the  primary  purpose  of  the  test  is  diagnosis.  We 
may  proceed  immediately,  therefore,  to  a  consideration 
of  tests  in  their  relation  to  the  particular  problem  of 
talent  in  drawing. 

Types  of  Tests  for  Diagnosis  of  Drawing  Talent 

The  discussion  of  the  preceding  chapter  has  prepared 
the  way  for  certain  conclusions  concerning  the  types  ol 
tests  which  will  be  valuable  in  the  diagnosis  of  talent  in 
drawing. 

At  first  thought  the  problem  seems  simple  enough: 
if  one  would  test  the  ability  of  persons  in  drawing, 
merely  have  them  draw  something  and  then  estimate  the 
value  of  the  product.  But  the  solution  is  not  so  easy. 


1See   the   discussions   of    Stern    and   Whippier    Stern,    W.     Die   differ- 
entielle  Psychologic,  pp.  87ff;  Whipple's  Manual,  pp.  Iff. 

134 


TEST  METHOD  AND  DIAGNOSIS  IN  DRAWING  135 

This  study  has  emphasized  the  fact  that  drawing  is  a 
complex  activity,  that  ability  in  drawing  is  analyzable 
into  many  factors  each  of  which  is  a  variable,  and  that 
there  is  no  one  psychophysical  constitution  for  talent  in  y  , 
drawing.  One  mayTiave  talent  in  a  particular  type  or- 
phase  of  drawing  and  have  little  ability  in  another. 
Moreover,  apparently  the  same  objective  result  may  be 
produced  by  abilities  which  differ  widely  in  the  strength 
of  their  constituent  factors.  Both  efficient  instruction 
and  helpful  vocational  guidance  demand  a  knowledge  of 
these  factors  severally.  We  conclude,  then,  that  (1)  A 
diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing  must  be  based  upon  an 
analysis  of  the  talent  and  a  measurement  of  tlie  con- 
stituent^ psychophysical  factors. 

(  2  )  The  folio  wing  program  of  tests  is  recom- 
mended for  the  diagnosis  of  talent  in  draiving:2  (See 
close  of  Chapter  VIII). 

(  1  )   Tests  of  the  elementary  ability  to  represent,  by 

lines  and  areas,  figures  and  objects  observed. 
(  2  )   Tests  of  the  ability  to  observe. 
(  3  )   Tests  of  the  ability  to  select  from  a  complex 
visual  situation  the  most  representative  and  the 
most  beautiful  aspects. 
(  4  )   Tests  of  the  memory  for  visual  forms. 
(  5  )   Tests  of  the  ability  mentally  to  manipulate  vis- 
ual forms. 
(  6  )   Tests  of  the  ability  to  control  hand  movements 

in  accordance  ivith  visual  percept  and  image. 
(  7  )   Tests  of  the  ability  to  invent,  to  bring  together 
into  new  artistic  combinations  the  elements  of 
different  visual  experiences. 


2The  order  of  tests  in  this  list  is  not  significant. 


136  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

(  8  )  Tests  of  the  ability  to  judge  the  beautiful  in 
line,  form,  color,  and  composition. 

(  9  )  Tests  of  the  ability  to  discriminate  differences 
in  color.3 

(10)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  discriminate  differences 
in  visual  magnitude. 

(11)  Tests  of  acuity  of  vision. 

(12)  Tests  of  general  intelligence. 

Other  Considerations 

(3)  Interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  tests  necessi- 
tates standards  of  achievement  with  which  the  perform- 
ance of  a  given  individual  may  fairly  be  compared.  A 
particular  score  in  a  test  means  little  until  it  is  compared 
with  the  scores  made  by  others. 

When  studying  special  ability,  investigators  must  be 
particularly  careful  in  the  conclusions  which  are  drawn 
from  the  gross  results  of  the  tests  employed.  Accidents 
of  opportunity  and  of  interest  may  occasion  a  very  un- 
even development  of  different  abilities  in  the  same  indi- 
~  vidual  and  of  the  same  abilities  in  different  individuals. 
It  seems  probable,  therefore,  that  it  will  be  much  more 
difficult  to  estimate  real  native  endowment  in  a  study 
of  special  ability  than  in  a  study  of  general  intelligence, 
for  in  the  latter  we  expect  lack  of  development  of  one 
factor  to  be  compensated  in  a  measure  by  greater  de- 
velopment of  another.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  of 
course,  that  what  we  are  really  testing  at  a  given  time 
is  the  native  endowment  as  this  has  been  modified  by  all 
the  individual's  previous  experience.  In  this  connec- 

*It   is   interesting   ito    note   in   this    connection   that   the   painter  Tade 

Styka   was,    if    we   may   accept   his   father's   testimony,    "color-blind"  until 

eight   years   of    age!      (See    Binet,    A.    La   psychologie   artistique   de  Tade 
Styke.     L'Annee  psych ologique,  15:  1908   (1909),  320. 


TEST  METHOD  AND  DIAGNOSIS  IN  DRAWING  137 

tion  the  facts  set  forth  in  the  following  three  paragraphs 
should  be  emphasized. 

(4)  Every  child  sliould  be  given  a  many-sided  op- 
portunity in  drawing  and  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
develop  corresponding  interest.     Our  immediate  concern 
in  this  proposition  is  based  upon  the  relation  of  op- 
portunity to  the  development  of  native  ability  and  Its 
diagnosis  by  appropriate  tests.     Equal  opportunities  lor 
development  will  tend  to  accentuate  the  original  indi- 
vidual differences,  so  that  the  gifted  child  will  tend  even 
more  to  exhibit  that  talent  when  the  tests  for  diagnosis 
are  given.     If  the  opportunities  are  very  uneven,  the 
child  of  mediocre  ability  but  of  exceptional  opportunity 
may  appear  to  be  the  really  gifted  one.  In  addition  to  the 
foregoing  we  may  mention,  as  reasons  for  giving  every 
child  an  opportunity  in  drawing,  the  value  of  an  early 
beginning  in  any  complicated  learning,  the  significance 
of  having  every  member  of  the  community  trained  to 
some  extent  in  the  appreciation  of  art,  and  the  social 
importance  of  developing  a  talent  which  might  without 
early  direction  lie  dormant  because  overshadowed  by 
some  other  but  less  well  endowed  interest, 

(5)  Biographical  and  personal  data  of  a  non-ex- 
perimental character  should  be  used  tb  assist  in  the  diag- 
nosis of  talent  in  drawing.     Due  consideration  should  be 
given,  for  example,  to  the  opportunity  for  drawing  which 
the  child  has  had,  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  other  in- 
terests which  might  influence  the  development  of  draw- 
ing ability,  to  his  heredity,  and  to  the  home  influences 
under  which  he  has  been  reared. 

(6)  It  is  recommended  that  tests  which  are  used  for 
the  purpose  of  estimating  the  possibilities  of  improve- 
ment in  any  given  factor  be  conducted  as  'instructed- 


138  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

learning9  tests,  as  explained  herewith.  It  is  one  thing 
to  test  an  ability  for  the  purpose  of  finding  its  present 
strength,  and  quite  another  to  test  it  for  the  purpose  of 
estimating  how  much  it  is  capable  of  improvement. 

The  'instructed-learning'  test  consists  of  different 
sections  of  test  material  interspersed  with  definite  in- 
structions concerning  method.  If  the  test  were  one  of 
drawing,  for  example,  the  subject  might  be  asked  to 
make  a  series  of  drawings  on  successive  days,  and  before 
each  drawing  (except  perhaps  the  first)  be  given  very 
definite  instructions  designed  to  teach  him  the  best 
method  to  employ  in  the  drawing.  Each  successive  time 
the  instructions  could  be  made  to  include  additional 
points  of  technique.  It  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that 
children  will  of  themselves  adopt  the  best  method  or 
even  the  same  method  for  doing  the  task  assigned.  It 
will  reduce  the  number  of  variables  in  the  test,  if  the 
experimenter  can  himself  determine  the  method  to  Ibe 
employed  by  the  subject.  In  a  test  of  this  type,  we 
shall  have  a  device  for  the  detection  of  undeveloped 
talent,  and,  in  the  learning  curve,  a  basis  for  the  esti- 
mation of  the  possibilities  of  development. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  tests  which  we  have  rec- 
ommended do  not  include  any  which  require  the  subject 
to  ' introspect'  in  the  technical  sense  of  the  term.  It  is 
believed  that,  when  subjects  who  are  untrained  in  intro- 
spection, as  will  be  the  case  with  most  of  those  who  are 
tested  for  ability  in  drawing,  are  asked  to  observe  and 
report  their  mental  processes,  only  unreliable  results  may 
be  expected.  Moreover,  we  are  not  at  all  convinced  that 
the  relation  of  particular  imaginal  processes  to  success  in 
drawing  has  been  satisfactorily  established  by  investi- 
gators whose  writings  we  have  reviewed. 


TEST  METHOD  AND  DIAGNOSIS  IN  DRAWING  139 

Undoubtedly,  a  program  for  the  diagnosis  of  talent  in 
drawing  has  important  implications  for  the  diagnosis  of 
other  kinds  of  talent.  These  cannot  be  discussed  here 
except  to  point  out  that  (7)  The  measurement  of  many 
different  abilities  not  primarily  related  to  drawing  is 
necessary  to  the  most  effective  educational  and  voca- 
tional use  of  measurements  of  ability  in  drawing.  Con- 
sider, for  example,  the  different  treatment  demanded  by 
the  following  types  of  cases:  (a)  a  person  who  has 
considerable  talent  in  drawing  but  greater  talent  in 
music,  and  (b)  one  who  has  relatively  little  talent  in 
drawing  but  more  in  drawing  than  can  be  discovered  in 
any  other  activity  of  equal  social  value. 

TJie  Needs 

Some  of  the  specific  needs  which  have  been  suggested 
in  the  course  of  this  research  are  the  following: 

1.  The  development  of  equivalent  tests.     (See  the 
first  part  of  Chapter  IV.) 

2.  Statistical  studies  of  the  frequency  of  specialized 
ability.     For  purposes  of  school  administration,  it 
would  be  of  service  to  know  what  percent  of  the  pu- 
pils enrolled  have  specialized  abilities  of  great  voca- 
tional or  social  importance. 

3.  The  development  of  better  tests  and  standards  of 
achievement  for  measuring  the  gross  products   of 
drawing. 

4.  The   development    of   tests   and   standards   for 
measuring : 

(1)  The  elementary  ability  to  represent,  by  lines 
and  areas,  figures  and  objects  observed. 

(2)  The  ability  to  observe,  with  special  reference 
to  drawing. 


140  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

(3)  The  ability  to  select  from  a  complex  visual 
situation  the  most  representative  and  the  most 
beautiful  aspects. 

(4)  The  ability  to  remember  visual  forms. 

(5)  The  ability  mentally  to  manipulate  visual 
forms,  with  special  reference  to  the  manipulation 
required  in  drawing. 

(6)  The  ability  to  control  hand  movements  in  ac- 
cordance with  visual  percept  and  image. 

(7)  The  inventive  ability  in  drawing. 

(8)  The  aesthetic  judgment.     It  would  be  an 
uncommonly  great   service  to   devise  some  test 
which  would  measure,  not  one 's  knowledge  of  aes- 
thetic principles  or  one's  ability  to  make  correct 
aesthetic  judgments,  but  the  extent  to  which  one 
is  really  moved  by  a  beautiful  object. 

5.  Studies  of  successful  persons  in  various  art  vo- 
cations in  order  to  determine  the  type  of  ability  which 
the  several  vocations  require. 

6.  Introspective  studies  of  the  relation  of  the  imag- 
inal  processes  to  ability  in  drawing. 


CHAPTER  IX 
SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS 

Purpose  of  Chapter 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  to  bring 
together  the  main  conclusions  which  we  have  been  able 
to  draw  in  this  study.  These  conclusions  have  been 
stated  in  Italics  in  Chapters  VII  and  VIII,  and  the 
same  numbering  which  was  used  in  those  chapters  has 
been  retained  in  the  following  list. 

Tlie  Psychopkysical  Characteristics  of  Persons  Talented 
in  Drawing 

(Chapter  VII) 

1.  The  production  of  an  effective  drawing  includes 
many  theoretically  distinguishable  activities. 

2.  Persons  talented  in  drawing  exhibit  great  indi- 
vidual differences  in  their  psychophysical  characteristics. 

3.  A  certain  elementary  ability  in  graphic  represen- 
tation, such  as  is  required  for  success  with  elementary- 
school  drawing,  is  independent,  or  partially  independent, 
of  general  intelligence. 

4.  General    intelligence    conditions   the    ability    of 
drawers  (a)  to  acquire  the  advanced  technique  into  which 
conceptual  factors  enter,  and  (6)  to  create  original  draw- 
ings of  merit. 

5.  Linguistic  ability  and  talent  in  drawing  are  re- 
lated only  from  the  point  of  view  that  general  intelli- 
gence and  talent  in  drawing  are  related ;  linguistic  ability 

141 


142  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

is  no  index  of  ability  or  lack  of  ability  in  graphic  repre- 
sentation. 

6.  The  motor   ability   which  underlies   talent   for 
drawing  is  specific  rather  than  general ;  talent  for  draw- 
ing does  not  presuppose  a  general  motor  superiority. 

7.  Achievement  in  handwriting  and  ability  in  draw- 
ing are  relatively  independent  of  each  other. 

8.  There  is  an  elementary  drawing  ability  which 
exists  apart  from  a  general  flexibility  of  motor  habit  as 
far  as  this  is  revealed  by  the  mirror-drawing  test. 

9.  The  ability  to  discriminate  fine  differences  in 
visual  magnitudes  varies  in  persons  talented  in  drawing ; 
the  measurement  of  this  ability  is  of  value  in  a  determin- 
ation of  the  factors  of  drawing  ability  regarded  as  a  com- 
plex. 

10.  While  persons  who  are  talented  in  drawing  ex- 
hibit considerable  individual  differences  in  tests  of  ob- 
servation, these  tests  appear  to  have  some  diagnostic 
value  for  talent  in  drawing. 

11.  Our  'introspective'  records  do  not  support  the 
view  that  superior  clearness  of  visual  (or  kinaesthetic) 
imagery  is  essential  to  talent  in  drawing. 

12.  Tests  of  the  memory  for  visual  forms  have  value 
in  determining  the  characteristics  of  one 's  drawing  abil- 
ity ;  but  one  may  have  a  certain  ability  in  graphic  repre- 
sentation without  a  good  memory  for  visual  forms,  other 
than  the  immediate  memory  required  in  looking  from  the 
object  to  the  drawing  surface. 

13.  Persons  talented  in  drawing  show  wide  individ- 
ual differences  in  their  power  mentally  to  manipulate 
spatial  forms;  tests  of  this  ability  are  of  value  to  de- 
termine in  detail  the  nature  of  the  talent. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS  143 

14.  No  clear  relation  is  apparent  between  ability  in 
drawing  and  the  invention  from  graphic  forms  which  was 
required  in  our  tests. 

15.  Quality  of  performance  in  graphic  representa- 
tion and  quality  of  performance  in  aesthetic  judgment 
are  independent,  or  at  least  partially  independent  vari- 
ables. 

16.  Interest  may  indicate  either  a  superior  innate 
ability  or  merely  a  high  development  of  a  rather  ordinary 
endowment,  but  it  is  of  immense  practical  importance 
as  an  index  of  the  energy  which  one  is  willing  to  expend 
in  the  development  of  one's  ability  and  in  practical 
achievement. 

17.  There  is  no  one  psychophysical  constitution  for 
talent  in   drawing;    the  essential   characteristics  vary 
with  the  type  of  talent  possessed. 

18.  The  following  characteristics,  each  an  indepen- 
dent or  partially  independent  variable,  seem  closely  re- 
lated to  ability  in  drawing : 

(1)  The  ability  mentally  to  note  a  visual  form, 
and,  by  certain  lines  and  areas,  to  reproduce  it 
or  significant  features  of  it. 

(2)  Ability  to  observe. 

(3)  Ability  to  select  from  a  complex  visual  sit- 
uation the  most  representative  and  the  most  beau- 
tiful aspects. 

(4)  Memory  of  visual  forms. 

(5)  Ability    mentally    to    manipulate    visual 
forms. 

(6)  Ability  to  control  hand  movements  in  ac- 
cordance with  visual  percept  or  image. 


144  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

(7)  Ability  to  invent,   to  bring  together  into 
new  artistic  combinations  the  elements  of  different 
visual  experiences. 

(8)  Ability  to  judge  the  beautiful  in  line,  form, 
color,  and  composition. 

(9)  Ability  to  discriminate  differences  in  color. 

(10)  Ability  to  discriminate  differences  in  visual 
magnitude. 

(11)  Acuity  of  vision. 

(12)  Interest  in  the  act  and  products  of  drawing. 

(13)  General  intelligence. 

The  Test  Method  and  Diagnosis  of  Drawing  Talent 
(Chapter  VIII) 

1.  A  diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing  must  be  based 
upon  an  analysis  of  the  talent  and  a  measurement  of 
the  constituent  psychophysical  factors. 

2.  The  following  program  of  tests  is  recommended 
for  the  diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing : 

(1)  Tests  of  the  elementary  ability  to  represent, 
by  lines  and  areas,  figures  and  objects  observed. 

(2)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  observe. 

(3)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  select  from  a  com- 
plex   visual    situation    the    most    representative 
and  the  most  beautiful  aspects. 

(4)  Tests  of  the  memory  for  visual  forms. 

(5)  Tests  of  the  ability  mentally  to  manipulate 
visual  forms. 

(6)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  control  hand  move- 
ments  in   accordance   with   visual   percept   and 
image. 


SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS  145 

(7)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  invent,  to  bring  to- 
gether into  new  artistic  combinations  the  elements 
of  different  visual  experiences. 

(8)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  judge  the  beautiful  in 
line,  form,  color,  and  composition. 

(9)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  discriminate  differ- 
ences in  color. 

(10)  Tests  of  the  ability  to  discriminate  differ- 
ences in  visual  magnitude. 

(11)  Tests  of  acuity  of  vision. 

(12)  Tests  of  general  intelligence. 

3.  Interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  tests  necessi- 
tates standards  of  achievement  with  which  the  perform- 
ance of  a  given  individual  may  fairly  be  compared. 

4.  Every  child  should  be  given  a  many-sided  op- 
portunity in  drawing  and  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
develop  corresponding  interest. 

5.  Biographical   and   personal   data   of  a  non-ex- 
perimental character  should  be  used  to  assist  in  the 
diagnosis  of  talent  in  drawing. 

6.  It  is  recommended  that  tests  which  are  used  for 
the  purpose  of  estimating  the  possibilities  of  improve- 
ment in  any  given  factor  be  conducted  as  'instructed- 
learning'  tests. 

7.  The   measurement    of   many   different   abilities 
not  primarily  related  to  drawing  is  necessary  to  the 
most  effective  educational  and  vocational  use  of  meas- 
urements of  ability  in  drawing. 

Conclusion 

This  study  has  resulted  in  a  somewhat  detailed  state- 
ment of  the  nature  of  talent  in  drawing  and  has  yielded 


146  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

a  tentative  program  of  tests  for  the  measurement  of  this 
talent.  In  addition  specific  needs  for  further  study  have 
been  indicated.  It  is  a  bit  disconcerting,  however,  to 
leave  the  investigation  where  this  unit  of  work  must 
leave  it.  Now  that  we  know  something  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  those  who  draw  and  have  devised  a  program 
for  measuring  these  characteristics,  it  seems  unfortunate 
that  we  are  unable  at  the  same  time  to  publish  the  ma- 
terial and  standards  for  the  tests  recommended.  But 
of  this  list  of  tests,  only  two  (tests  of  acuity  of  vision 
and  tests  of  general  intelligence)  may  be  regarded  as 
fairly  satisfactory  in  their  present  form  for  the  purpose 
in  hand,  and  these  are  easily  available  elsewhere.  It  is 
clear,  however,  that  appreciable  progress  is  being  made 
in  this  new  field,  the  use  of  tests  in  the  diagnosis  of  special 
ability,  and  we  may  look  to  the  future  with  confidence. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  authors  and  titles  to 
which  reference  has  been  made  in  this  study : 

Albien,  G.  Der  Anteil  der  nachkonstruierenden 
Tatigkeit  des  Auges  und  der  Apperception  an  dem 
Behalten  und  der  Wiedergabe  einfacher  Formen. 
Zeitsckrift  fur  Experiment elle  Padagogik,  Bd.  5 : 
1907,  133ff;  Bd.  6:  1908,  Iff. 

Albien's  experiment  represents  an  elaborate  attempt  to  isolate 
experimentally  the  various  parts  of  the  drawing  process.  Simple 
figures  of  varying  difficulty  were  used  for  copy.  Three  methods  of 
exposure  were  used.  The  first  was  an  exposure  for  ten  seconds  by 
means  of  the  tachistoscope,  during  which  period  the  eyes  remained 
fixed  upon  the  same  point.  In  the  second  method,  the  subject  was 
permitted  to  view  the  copy  until  he  thought  that  he  could  reproduce 
it;  then  he  attempted  to  draw  it  from  memory.  In  the  third  metnod, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  147 

the  figure  was  drawn  with  the  copy  in  view.  The  subjects  in  the 
experiments  were  forty-five  pupils,  ages  9  to  18,  from  the  Realschule. 
These  included  children  of  good,  average,  and  poor  ability  in  drawing 
and  of  good  and  poor  intelligence.  All  except  nine  pupils  had  received 
instruction  in  free-hand  drawing. 

Ayer,  F.  C.  The  Psychology  of  Drawing  with  Special 
Reference  to  Laboratory  Teaching.  Baltimore,  War- 
wick and  York,  1916.  Pp.  186. 

Contains  comprehensive  summary  of  the  literature  of  drawing. 
Reports  also  an  experimental  study  of  drawing  with  special  reference 
to  laboratory  procedure.  (1)  Four  groups  of  subjects  were  tested 
with  unfamiliar  objects  as  to  their  abilities  in  drawing,  description, 
and  diagramming.  Correlations  were  made  between  the  orders  of 
merit  of  these  productions.  The  groups  were  (a)  51  high  school 
students,  (b)  48  graduate  students,  (c)  50  college  students,  and  (d) 
61  college  students.  Three  of  the  groups  were  examined  as  to  their 
memory  of  details  after  they  had  drawn  and  described  various  objects. 
The  second  group  made  introspective  analysis  of  the  processes  involved, 
after  drawing  and  describing  an  object.  (2)  Grades  of  51  high 
school  students  were  compared  with  their  ranking  in  drawing  as 
discovered  in  the  special  tests.  (3)  Grades  in  drawing  received  by 
141  normal  school  students  were  compared  with  the  grades  received 
in  all  other  subjects.  (4)  16  students  were  given  an  experimental 
test  in  the  effect  of  analytical  seeing  upon  drawing. 

Betts,  George  H.  The  Distribution  and  Functions  of 
Mental  Imagery.  (Doctor's  dissertation,  Columbia 
University,  1909.) 

Contains  the  questionary  which  was  used  for  the  study  of  imagery 
in  this  study. 

Binet,  A.  La  psychologic  artistique  de  Tade  Styka. 
L'  Annee  psychologique,  15:  1908  (1909),  315-356. 

Report  of  a  study  of  a  young  painter,  Tade  Styka.  See  Chapter 
II  of  this  volume. 

Bonser,  F.  G.  The  Eeasoning  Ability  of  Children  of 
the  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth  Grades.  New  York, 
Teachers  College,  1910.  Pp.  133. 

Reports  an  attempt  to  measure  by  means  of  tests  the  reasoning 
abilities  of  children.  Factors  measured  were  mathematical  judgment, 
controlled  association,  selective  judgment,  and  literary  interpretation. 

Calfee,  Marguerite.  College  Freshmen  and  Four  Gen- 
eral Intelligence  Tests.  Journal  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology, 4:  1913,  223-231. 


148  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

Four  general  intelligence  tests  (card  sorting,  card  dealing,  alpha- 
bet sorting,  and  mirror  drawing)  were  applied  to  103  college  fresh- 
men. Correlations  were  made  between  the  results  of  the  different 
tests  and  between  the  results  of  each  test  and  the  scholastic  standing 
of  the  students. 

Claparede,  Ed.  Profils  psychologiques  gradues  d'apres 
Pordination  des  sujets  avec  quelques  mots  sur 
Putilite  des  profils  en  psychologie  legale.  Archives 
de  psychologie,  16 :  1916,  No.  61,  70-81. 

Contains  illustrations  of  methods  of  graphing  the  performances 
of  an  individual  in  different  tests  so  that  both  the  score  and  the 
relative  standing  are  indicated. 

Cubberley,  E.  P.  Editor's  Introduction  to  Freeman's 
Experimental  Education. 

Introductory  discussion  of  experimental  education. 

Dallenbach,  K.  M.  The  Effect  of  Practise  upon  Visual 
Apprehension  in  School  Children.  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Psychology,  5 :  1914,  321-334,  387-404. 

Supplements  the  work  of  Whipple  and  Foster  (see  respective 
titles).  The  subjects  were  school  children. 

Foster,  W.  S.  The  Effect  of  Practice  upon  Visualizing 
and  upon  the  Reproduction  of  Visual  Impressions. 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  2 :  1911,  11-22. 

The  material  of  the  experiment  consisted  of  real  objects,  pictures, 
and  nonsense  drawings.  The  time  of  exposure  was  from  10  to  60 
seconds.  The  drawing  was  sometimes  accompanied  by  written  descrip- 
tion. The  subjects  were  three  adults. 

Freeman,  F.  N.  Experimental  Education.  Boston, 
Houghton  Mifflin,  1916.  Pp.  220. 

A  laboratory  manual  of  experiments  and  typical  results  in  ex- 
perimental education.  Contains  introduction  by  E.  P.  Cubberley,  to 
which  reference  is  made  in  this  study. 

Freeman,  F.  N.  The  Psychology  of  the  Common 
Branches.  Houghton  Mifflin,  1916.  Pp.  275. 

A  text-book  in  educational  psychology  as  applied  to  the  common 
branches.  Contains  a  chapter  on  drawing. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  149 

Healey,  W.  H.,  and  Fernald,  Grace  M.  Tests  for  Prac- 
tical Mental  Classification.  Psychological  Review 
Monographs,  13 :  1911,  No.  2. 

Describes  a  number  of  tests  used  by  the  authors  in  the  Chicago 
Juvenile  Psychopathic  Institute. 

Ivanof,  E.  Le  dessin  des  ecoliers  de  la  suisse  romande. 
Archives  de  psychologic,  1908,  VIII :  97ff. 

The  author  examined  critically  9764  drawings  collected  from  2441 
pupils  in  the  Swiss  schools  in  an  investigation  planned  by  Claparede 
and  Guex.  Each  child  drew  (1)  from  a  copy  a  chair  or  stool,  (2) 
from  memory  a  cat,  (3)  to  illustrate  the  fable  of  Le  Corbeau  et  du 
Renard,  and  (4)  from  free  choice  any  object.  The  drawings  were 
accompanied  by  information  as  to  the  age,  sex,  nationality,  rank  in 
general  work,  subjects  for  which  the  most  and  least  aptitudes  were 
shown,  etc.  The  drawings  were  evaluated  according  to  three  stand- 
ards: correctness  of  proportions  of  the  drawings,  imaginative  con- 
ception of  the  drawer,  and  the  technical  and  artistic  value  of  the 
drawing.  Various  correlations  between  aptitude  in  drawing  and 
other  aptitudes  were  made.  The  correlations  were  made  according 
to  age  rather  than  school  grade. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  and  Cowling,  D.  J.  Studies  in  Perceptual 
Development.  Psychological  Review  Monographs,  8 : 

1907,  349-369. 

An  experimental  study  of  the  way  in  which  the  perception  of 
simple  visual  forms  is  developed.  A  simple  figure  composed  of  straight 
and  curved  lines  was  exposed  for  ten  seconds  and  the  subjects  im- 
mediately afterward  attempted  to  reproduce  it.  The  figure  was  ex- 
posed repeatedly  until  the  subject  was  able  to  reproduce  its  essential 
form. 

Kerschensteiner,  Georg.  Die  Entwicklung  der  zeichner- 
ischen  Begalung.  Munich,  Gruber,  1905.  S.  508. 

A  comprehensive  study  of  children's  drawings.  Many  facsimile 
reproductions  are  given  of  drawings  illustrating  stages  of  development. 
See  Chapter  II  of  this  study. 

Kik,  C.  Die  iibernormale  Zeichnenbegabung  bei  Kin- 
dern.  Zeitschrift  fur  angeivandte  Psychologic,  2: 

1908,  92-149. 

A  study  of  13  children  talented  in  drawing.  See  Chapter  II  of 
this  volume. 


150  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

Meumann,  E.  Voiiesungen  zur  Einfiihrung  in  die  ex- 
perimentelle  Padagogik,  2d  ed,  Bd.  3.  Englemann, 
Leipsig,  1914. 

Brings  together  a  vast  amount  of  material  in  the  field  of  experi- 
mental education.  Contains  an  elaborate  analysis  of  drawing. 

Prosser,  C.  A.  Art  Training  for  Industry.  Bulletin  of 
tlie  Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Associa- 
tion, Annual  Eeport  for  1916, 1 :  No.  2,  22-31. 

An  interesting  discussion  of  problems  in  art  training  from  the 
point  of  view  of  a  practical  worker  in  art  education. 

Pyle,  W.  H.  A  Manual  for  the  Mental  and  Physical 
Examination  of  School  Children.  The  University  of 
Missouri  Bulletin,  Vol.  17 :  1916,  No.  24. 

Describes  a  number  of  tests  and  gives  norms  of  comparative 
results. 

Robinson,  J.  B.  Architectural  Composition,  New  York, 
Van  Nostrand,  1908;  Second  Edition  (?).  Pp.  234. 

A  formulation  of  principles  of  architecture.     Illustrated. 

Rossolimo,  G.  Die  psychologische  Profile.  Zur  Metho- 
dik  der  quantitativen  Untersuchung  der  psychischen 
Vorgange  in  normalen  und  pathologischeii  Fallen. 
Klinik  fur  psychische  und  nervose  Krankheiten,  Bd. 
6:  1911,  Heft  3.  See  also  the  same  title  in  Heft  4 
and  the  following  article : 

Eossolimo,  Gr.  Berichtigungen  under  Erganzungen  zur 
Methodik  der  Untersuchung  der  Psychologischen 
Profile.  Klinik  fur  psycMsche  und  nervose  Krank- 
Jieiten,  Bd.  8 :  1914~  Heft.  2. 

In  these  references  the  author  describes  a  method  of  testing  a 
number  of  mental  processes.  Ten  tasks  are  given  in  each  test.  The 
psychological  profile  is  a  graph  which  represents  the  number  of  tasks 
correctly  done  in  each  test,  or  the  mean  number  done  in  each  group 
of  related  tests. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  151 

Rugg,  H.  0.  The  Experimental  Determination  of  Men- 
tal Discipline  in  School  Studies  (Descriptive  Geom- 
etry and  Mental  Discipline).  Thesis,  University  of 
Illinois.  Baltimore,  Warwick  and  York,  1916.  Pp. 
132. 

Summarizes  the  experimental  literature  of  mental  discipline,  and 
reports  an  experimental  study  conducted  by  the  author.  Of  interest 
in  the  study  of  drawing  because  of  the  use  made  of  tests  requiring 
mental  manipulation  of  visual  forms. 

Sargent,  W.,  and  Miller,  Elizabeth.  How  Children 
Learn  to  Draw.  Boston,  Ginn,  1916.  Pp.  264. 

An  account  in  detail  of  methods  of  teaching  children  to  draw. 

Stern,  W.  Die  differentielle  Psychologic  in  ihren  meth- 
odischen  Grundlagen.  Leipzig,  Barth,  1911.  Pp. 
503. 

A  valuable  discussion  of  differential  psychology  as  a  new  scien- 
tific discipline.  Methods  of  acquiring  materials,  investigating  individ- 
ual differences,  and  studying  individualities  are  discussed  at  length. 
The  bibliography  contains  upwards  of  1500  titles. 

Stern,  W.  The  Supernormal  Child.  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  2 :  1911,  143-148,  181-190. 

Discusses  the  child  of  superior  ability.  Author  urges  that  some- 
thing be  done  for  the  gifted  child,  and  discusses  the  practical  and 
theoretical  problems  of  the  treatment  of  superior  endowment. 

Terman,  L.  M.  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.  Bos- 
ton, Houghton  Mifflin,  1916.  Pp.  362. 

"An  explanation  of  and  a  complete  guide  for  the  use  of  the 
Stanford  revision  and  extension  of  the  Binet-Simon  intelligence 
scale."  Contains  bibliography. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  Tests  of  Esthetic  Appreciation. 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1 :  1916,  509-522. 

Describes  tests  for   appreciation  of  graphic  forms  and  of  poetry. 

Titchener,  E.  B.  A  Beginner's  Psychology.  Macmil- 
lan,  New  York,  1915.  Pp.  362. 

A  text-book  in  elementary  psychology. 


152  TALENT  IN  DRAWING 

Trabue,  M.  E.  Completion  Tests  for  Public  School  Use. 
Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education,  1916,  pp.  52-59. 

Discusses   the  Trabue  language  tests  particularly  from  the  point 
of  view  of  their  use  in  public  schools. 

Trabue,  M.  E.  Completion  Test  Language  Scales. 
Doctor's  Dissertation,  Columbia  University,  1916. 

Describes  the  derivation,  methods  of  scoring,   etc.,   of  the  Trabue 
language  scales.     Contains   copies   of  the  scales. 

Weidensall,  Jean.  The  Mentality  of  the  Criminal 
Woman.  Educational  Psychology  Monographs.  No. 
14,  1916. 

A    study    of    criminal   women    in  the    Bedford    Hills,    New   York, 
Reformatory.     Contains    comparative   data   from   tests    of    college   girls 


Whipple,  G.  M.  The  Effect  of  Practice  upon  the  Eange 
of  Visual  Attention  and  of  Visual  Apprehension. 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  1 :  1910,  250-262. 

In  experimenting  upon  the  range  of  attention,  tachistoscopic 
exposure  was  made  of  5,  6,  and  7-place  series  of  isolated  letters.  In 
experiments  with  the  range  of  apprehension,  dots,  pictures,  drawings, 
nonsense  syllables,  poetry,  and  objects  were  used.  The  subjects  were 
adults. 

Whipple,  G.  M.  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 
Baltimore,  Warwick  and  York,  1910 ;  Second  Edition, 
Vol.  1,  1914,  Vol.  2,  1915.  Pp.  365  and  336. 

An  encyclopedia  of  information  on  mental  and  physical  tests. 
Contains  descriptions  of  many  tests  and  extensive  bibliographies. 
Volume  1  includes  a  discussion  of  the  statistical  treatment  of  numerical 
results. 

Woodworth,  E.  S.,  and  Wells,  F.  L.  Association  Tests. 
Psychological  Review  Monographs,  13 :  1911,  No.  5. 

Report  of  a  study  in  the  standardization  of  a  number  of  associa- 
tion tests.  Tests  are  described  and  critically  discussed. 


VITA 

Herschel  Thurman  Manuel,  son  of  Asbury  H.  and 
Sarah  J.  Manuel,  was  born  near  Freetown,  Indiana, 
December  24,  1887.  He  attended  the  Freetown  village 
schools  until  the  completion  of  the  seventh  grade.  The 
last  year  of  the  grade  work  was  done  in  the  Browns- 
town,  Indiana,  public  schools.  His  secondary  training 
was  received  in  the  Brownstown  High  School,  from  which 
institution  he  received  his  diploma  in  1905.  The  next 
two  academic  years  were  spent  in  collegiate  study  in 
Taylor  University  at  Upland,  Indiana.  In  1907  he 
entered  DePauw  University  at  Greencastle,  Indiana,  and 
was  graduated  with  the  degree,  Bachelor  of  Arts,  in 
1909.  For  the  next  four  years  he  was  a  teacher  in  the 
public  schools  and  held  the  following  positions :  1909-10 
Principal  of  the  Chalmers  (Indiana)  High  School, 
1910-11  Superintendent  of  the  Whiteland  (Indiana) 
Public  Schools,  and  1911-13  Superintendent  of  the 
Chalmers  Public  Schools.  He  was  a  Fellow  in  Education 
in  the  University  of  Chicago  for  the  years  1913-15,  and 
received  the  degree,  Master  of  Arts,  there  in  1914.  Dur- 
ing the  year  1915-16  he  was  a  Fellow  in  Psychology  in 
Clark  University,  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  and  an  In- 
structor in  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  in  Clark  College, 
the  collegiate  department  of  Clark  University.  He  con- 
tinued his  graduate  work  in  the  University  of  Illinois 
during  the  year  1916-17  working  under  the  direction 
of  Professor  Guy  M.  Whipple  in  special  research  on 


the  general  problem  of  gifted  children,  an  investigation 
which  was  subsidized  by  the  General  Education  Board. 

He  has  written  the  following: 

"The  Variability  in  the  Use  of  the  Ayres  Scale 
for  Grading  Handwriting. ' '  Unpublished 
Master's  Essay  on  file  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Chicago. 

"The  Use  of  an  Objective  Scale  of  Grading  Hand- 
writing. "  Elementary  School  Journal,  XV: 
1915,  269-278. 

"The  New  England  Penmanship  Association: 
Certain  Observations. ' '  School  and  Society, 
III :  1916,  502-504. 

"Is  the  College  *  Smoker'  a  Worthy  Social  Insti- 
tution?" School  and  Society,  IV:  1916,  699- 
705. 

"Problems  in  Handwriting:  I.  Problems  Sug- 
gested by  a  Certain  Deterioration  in  Letter 
Form. ' '  School  and  Society,  V :  1917,  327-330. 


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